Synergetic Optimization of Upper and Lower Surfaces of the SnO₂ Electron Transport Layer for High-Performance n–i–p Perovskite Solar Cells

The SnO 2 electron transport layer (ETL) has been recognized as one of the most effective protocols for achieving high-efficiency perovskite solar cells (PSCs). To date, most research has primarily focused on the modification of the upper surface of SnO 2 ETL films. The lower surface of the SnO 2 film, which directly influences the film formation of solution-processed SnO 2, is equally important but receives relatively less attention. Herein, we present a synergetic optimization approach involving the deposition of aluminum oxide (AlO x ) via atomic layer deposition (ALD) as a buffer layer and the incorporation of rubidium acetate (RbAc) as an upper surface passivation additive. This process leads to a conformal coating of SnO 2 nanoparticles, improved electrical performance, and higher-quality perovskite crystals. As a result, with this composite ETL film, the power conversion efficiency (PCE) reached 22.41 from 20.77%. Further modification with p -butyl iodide (BAI) on the perovskite upper surface increased the champion PCE to 23.32%, with a voltage loss of 0.41 V, ranking among the lowest values for the triple-cation mixed-halide perovskite absorber (1.58 eV). Importantly, the perovskite solar cells remained 87.30% of its initial performance after 14 days of aging and exhibited photostability under long-term UV (254 nm) illumination.