Emerging optoelectronic technologies for next-generation leadless bioelectronic modulation

Electroceuticals, which are implantable and wearable bioelectric modulators, hold great potential in basic electrophysiological research. Moreover, they are considered a nonpharmacological alternative for many clinical applications that seek to target specific neuronal pathways. However, the leads of these devices are considered the Achilles' heel because they are chronically invasive and limit anatomical access. Numerous approaches utilizing different energy modalities, such as magnetic, ultrasonic, and optical transduction, for leadless bioelectrical modulation have been proposed. This perspective will highlight recent advances in leadless biomodulation technologies and describe the current state of the art. It will focus on optoelectronic devices and materials that enable optical biomodulation of cells and tissues, compare these technologies with other leadless approaches, and discuss their limitations and potential. This perspective will also highlight practical considerations relating to implementation of these technologies in basic research as compared with clinical applications.