Exploring the piezoelectric phenomenon: From polymers to human tissues and advanced applications in tissue engineering

Piezoelectricity refers to the phenomenon in which certain materials convert mechanical energy into electrical energy and vice versa. It occurs in natural and synthetic materials, underscoring its broad importance within biological environments. This review will discuss the basic principles of piezoelectricity, with a focus on its presence in synthetic materials, including polymers like polyvinylidene fluoride and other polyesters, along with composites of these polymers. The review will also highlight the natural piezoelectric responses observed in human tissues, including bone, skin, dental tissues, and connective tissues and relate these effects to their non-centrosymmetric molecular structure. Traditional tissue engineering materials focus primarily on biochemical, mechanical signals without sustaining the complexity of a natural microenvironment. Piezoelectric materials may offer a new approach to tissue engineering, providing electrical signals capable of directing cellular behavior. These mechanical generated signals are able to create a dynamic and self-powered method for enhancing cellular communication, survival, and differentiation, particularly applicable to regenerative strategies in bone and neural tissue. The review will also consider the most recent discoveries around the use of piezoelectric materials in the scaffolding systems supporting the growth of bone and nerve tissues. and their use in repairing skin and skeletal muscle, showing potential utility in even broader regenerative applications, while also importantly highlighting the adaptable nature of piezoelectric materials.