AI-Enabled Integration of Smart Grids and Green Hydrogen: A System-Level Review of Flexibility, Control, and Cyber-Physical Energy Systems
Source abstract
Abstract
The rapid digitalization of power systems and the growing penetration of variable renewable energy sources have intensified the need for flexible and resilient smart-grid architectures capable of coordinating cross-sector energy flows. This review aims to provide a system-level synthesis of the artificial-intelligence-enabled integration of smart grids and green hydrogen, explicitly addressing coordination across physical infrastructure, digital control layers, market mechanisms, and environmental constraints. Following the PRISMA 2020 framework, 142 high-relevance studies published between 2010 and 2025 were systematically screened and classified into five interdependent thematic pillars: demand-side flexibility, ICT and IoT infrastructures, cybersecurity and resilience, communication and control performance, and AI-based optimization and decision-making. The synthesis reveals three principal findings. First, while core technologies such as photovoltaics, battery storage, and proton exchange membrane electrolyzers exhibit high component-level maturity, system-integration readiness remains limited by interoperability, communication latency, cybersecurity compliance, and market eligibility constraints. Second, electrolyzers can technically provide fast-response and multi-timescale flexibility services, yet their economic viability depends strongly on market product granularity, settlement intervals, and regulatory frameworks. Third, environmental and resource constraints, including water availability and material criticality, are emerging as binding factors that must be embedded directly into planning and optimization models. Overall, the review positions artificial intelligence as a cross-layer coordination mechanism that links operational control, digital observability, market participation, and sustainability boundaries, providing an integrated architecture to guide scalable and resilient smart grid–hydrogen deployment.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems · Integrated Energy Systems Optimization · Optimal Power Flow Distribution
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
EEIS Laboratory, ENSET Mohammedia, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Casablanca 20100, Morocco
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. European Commission (2026, January 13). Proposal for a 2040 Climate Target: Stepping up Europe’s Climate Ambition. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_662.
2. U.S. Department of Energy (2021). Bipartisan Infrastructure Law: Transforming.
3. International Energy Agency (2025). Electricity Market Report—January 2025, International Energy Agency.
4. Power system resilience and strategies for a sustainable infrastructure: A review10.1016/j.aej.2024.06.092 ↗
5. A survey on Advanced Metering Infrastructure10.1016/j.ijepes.2014.06.025 ↗
6. Internet of Things-Aided Smart Grid: Technologies, Architectures, Applications, Prototypes, and Future Research Directions10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2913984 ↗
7. Energy management system for smart grid: An overview and key issues10.1002/er.4883 ↗
8. Sospiro, P., Amarnath, L., Di Nardo, V., Talluri, G., and Gandoman, F.H. (2021). Smart Grid in China, EU, and the US: State of Implementation. Energies, 14.10.3390/en14185637 ↗
9. Aggregated demand-side energy flexibility: A comprehensive review on characterization, forecasting and market prospects10.1016/j.egyr.2022.07.038 ↗
10. IEA (2024). Global Hydrogen Review 2024, IEA. Available online: https://www.iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2024.
11. Demand response for frequency regulation: Research continuity and knowledge gaps10.1016/j.rser.2024.114958 ↗
12. Hydrogen Council (2026, February 27). Hydrogen Insights 2024. Available online: https://hydrogencouncil.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Hydrogen-Insights-2024.pdf.
13. Longo, A., Ardebili, A.A., Lazari, A., and Ficarella, A. (2025). Cyber-Physical Resilience: Evolution of Concept, Indicators, and Legal Frameworks. Electronics, 14.10.3390/electronics14081684 ↗
14. Ginzburg-Ganz, E., Segev, I., Balabanov, A., Segev, E., Naveh, S.K., Machlev, R., Belikov, J., Katzir, L., Keren, S., and Levron, Y. (2024). Reinforcement Learning Model-Based and Model-Free Paradigms for Optimal Control Problems in Power Systems: Comprehensive Review and Future Directions. Energies, 17.10.20944/preprints202410.0246.v1 ↗
15. AI-enhanced intrusion detection in smart renewable energy grids: A novel industry 4.0 cyber threat management approach10.1016/j.ijcip.2025.100769 ↗
16. Future effectual role of energy delivery: A comprehensive review of Internet of Things and smart grid10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.089 ↗
17. Potential smart grid vulnerabilities to cyber attacks: Current threats and existing mitigation strategies10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e37980 ↗
18. Conceptualizations of smart grids—Anomalous and contradictory expert paradigms in transitions of the electricity system10.1016/j.erss.2023.103392 ↗
19. Yasmin, R., Amin, B.M.R., Shah, R., and Barton, A. (2024). A Survey of Commercial and Industrial Demand Response Flexibility with Energy Storage Systems and Renewable Energy. Sustainability, 16.10.3390/su16020731 ↗
20. Performance improvement through nonlinear control design and power management of a grid-connected wind-battery hybrid energy storage system10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101491 ↗
21. Franzelin, T., Schwarz, S., and Rinderknecht, S. (2025). Smart Charging and V2G: Enhancing a Hybrid Energy Storage System with Intelligent and Bidirectional EV Charging. World Electr. Veh. J., 16.10.3390/wevj16030121 ↗
22. Efficient energy management using fuzzy logic control in a gym microgrid with stationary bikes, PV generation, and battery storage systems
23. Peak shaving and valley filling of power consumption profile in non-residential buildings using an electric vehicle parking lot10.1016/j.energy.2018.01.128 ↗
24. Smart home energy management using demand response with uncertainty analysis of electric vehicle in the presence of renewable energy sources10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123062 ↗
25. (2020). IEEE Standard for Low-Rate Wireless Networks (Standard No. IEEE 802.15.4).
26. Bayvel, P., Behrens, C., and Millar, D.S. (2013). Digital Signal Processing (DSP) and Its Application in Optical Communication Systems. Optical Fiber Telecommunications VIB: Systems and Networks, Elsevier. [6th ed].10.1016/B978-0-12-396960-6.00005-5 ↗
27. Xia, T.J., and Wellbrock, G.A. (2013). Commercial 100-Gbit/s Coherent Transmission Systems. Optical Fiber Telecommunications VIB: Systems and Networks, Elsevier. [6th ed.].10.1016/B978-0-12-396960-6.00002-X ↗
28. Kumar, A., Manjunath, D., and Kuri, J. (2004). Networking: Functional Elements and Current Practice. Communication Networking, Elsevier.10.1016/B978-012428751-8/50002-1 ↗
29. Sweeney, S.J., Eales, T.D., and Marko, I.P. (2019). The physics of mid-infrared semiconductor materials and heterostructures. Mid-infrared Optoelectronics: Materials, Devices, and Applications, Elsevier.10.1016/B978-0-08-102709-7.00001-2 ↗
30. A contemporary survey on free space optical communication: Potentials, technical challenges, recent advances and research direction10.1016/j.jnca.2021.103311 ↗
31. (2025, July 19). Optical Fibre Infrastructure—An overview|ScienceDirect Topics. Available online: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/optical-fibre-infrastructure.
32. (2003). Working Group on Broadband Wireless Access (Standard No. IEEE 802.16).
33. Application of wireless sensor networks in the field of irrigation: A review10.1016/j.compag.2020.105782 ↗
34. (2003). Communication Networks and Systems for Power Utility Automation (Standard No. IEC 61850).
35. (2012). IEEE Standard for Electric Power Systems Communications—Distributed Network Protocol (DNP3) (Standard No. DNP3 60870-5).
36. (1990). Telecontrol Equipment and Systems – Part 5: Transmission Protocols (Standard No. IEC 60870-5).
37. Towards the next generation of smart grids: Semantic and holonic multi-agent management of distributed energy resources10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.107 ↗
38. (2011). IEEE Guide for Smart Grid Interoperability of Energy Technology and Information Technology Operation with the Electric Power System (EPS), End-Use Applications, and Loads (Standard No. IEEE P2030-2011).
39. A review on solid-state transformer: A breakthrough technology for future smart distribution grids10.1016/j.ijepes.2021.107255 ↗
40. A review on the state-of-the-art technologies of electric vehicle, its impacts and prospects10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.130 ↗
41. Performance analysis of smart metering for smart grid: An overview10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.170 ↗
42. Beck, F., and Martinot, E. (2004). Renewable Energy Policies and Barriers. Encyclopedia of Energy, Elsevier.10.1016/B0-12-176480-X/00488-5 ↗
43. Faults in smart grid systems: Monitoring, detection and classification10.1016/j.epsr.2020.106602 ↗
44. Al Noman, A., Baidya, P., Hossain, M.A., Dev, P., Saha, K., and Hossain, M.L. (2025). Design and Implementation IoT-Driven Distribution Transformer Health Monitoring System for the Smart Power Grid. ASEC 2024, MDPI.10.3390/engproc2025087027 ↗
45. Advanced fault detection methodologies and communication protocols for DC micro grid—A technical review10.1016/j.rineng.2025.104398 ↗
46. Votava, J., Saker, M., Ghanem, S., Rehabi, M., Fandi, G., Müller, Z., Krepl, V., Čábelková, I., Smutka, L., and Tlustý, J. (2025). Sustainable Energy Management System for Microgrids Assisted by IOT and Improved by AI. Results in Engineering, Elsevier.10.2139/ssrn.4841681 ↗
47. Poyyamozhi, M., Murugesan, B., Rajamanickam, N., Shorfuzzaman, M., and Aboelmagd, Y. (2024). IoT—A Promising Solution to Energy Management in Smart Buildings: A Systematic Review, Applications, Barriers, and Future Scope. Buildings, 14.10.3390/buildings14113446 ↗
48. Paradigm shift for predictive maintenance and condition monitoring from Industry 4.0 to Industry 5.0: A systematic review, challenges and case study10.1016/j.rineng.2024.102935 ↗
49. Renewable energy based low-voltage distribution network for dynamic voltage regulation10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101701 ↗
50. Next generation power inverter for grid resilience: Technology review10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e39596 ↗
51. Aktas, F., Shayea, I., Ergen, M., Aldasheva, L., Saoud, B., Tussupov, A., Yedilkhan, D., and Amanzholova, S. (2025). Routing Challenges and Enabling Technologies for 6G–Satellite Network Integration: Toward Seamless Global Connectivity. Technologies, 13.10.3390/technologies13060245 ↗
52. A hierarchical control for application placement and load distribution in Edge Computing10.1016/j.future.2024.107631 ↗
53. Mazhar, T., Malik, M.A., Mohsan, S.A.H., Li, Y., Haq, I., Ghorashi, S., Karim, F.K., and Mostafa, S.M. (2023). Quality of Service (QoS) Performance Analysis in a Traffic Engineering Model for Next-Generation Wireless Sensor Networks. Symmetry, 15.10.3390/sym15020513 ↗
54. Significance of sensors for industry 4.0: Roles, capabilities, and applications10.1016/j.sintl.2021.100110 ↗
55. (2009). Industrial Communication Networks – Network and System Security (Standard No. IEC 62443).
56. Abrahamsen, F.E., Ai, Y., and Cheffena, M. (2021). Communication Technologies for Smart Grid: A Comprehensive Survey. Sensors, 21.10.3390/s21238087 ↗
57. Cindrić, I., Jurčević, M., and Hadjina, T. (2025). Mapping of Industrial IoT to IEC 62443 Standards. Sensors, 25.10.3390/s25030728 ↗
58. (2013). ZigBee Alliance: ZigBee Smart Energy Profile 2.0 Specification (Standard No. ZigBee SEP 2.0).
59. (2014). Rev. 1: Guidelines for Smart Grid Cybersecurity (Standard No. NISTIR 7628).
60. (2024). IEEE Standard for Information Technology--Telecommunications and Information Exchange between Systems Local and Metropolitan Area Networks--Specific Requirements Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications (Standard No. IEEE 802.11).
61. (2008). E-UTRA and E-UTRAN; Overall Description; Stage 2 (Standard No. LTE 3GPP TS 36.300).
62. (2020). Rev. 5: Security and Privacy Controls for Information Systems and Organizations (Standard No. NIST SP 800-53).
63. (2007). Power Systems Management and Associated Information Exchange—Data and Communications Security (Standard No. IEC 62351).
64. (2006). Telecontrol Equipment and Systems—Part 5-104: Transmission Protocols—Network Access for IEC 60870-5-101 Using Standard Transport Profiles (Standard No. IEC 60870-5-104).
65. (2009). Industrial Automation and Control Systems Security (Standard No. ISA/IEC 62443).
66. A comprehensive review study of cyber-attacks and cyber security; Emerging trends and recent developments10.1016/j.egyr.2021.08.126 ↗
67. Diana, L., Dini, P., and Paolini, D. (2025). Overview on Intrusion Detection Systems for Computers Networking Security. Computers, 14.10.3390/computers14030087 ↗
68. Nhung-Nguyen, H., Girdhar, M., Kim, Y.-H., and Hong, J. (2024). Machine-Learning-Based Anomaly Detection for GOOSE in Digital Substations. Energies, 17.10.3390/en17153745 ↗
69. Kabir-Querrec, M. (2016). Cyber Security of Smart-Grid Control Systems: Intrusion Detection in IEC 61850 Communication Networks. [Ph.D. Thesis, Université Grenoble Alpes]. Available online: https://theses.hal.science/tel-01609230v2.
70. Blockchain for healthcare systems: Architecture, security challenges, trends and future directions10.1016/j.jnca.2023.103633 ↗
71. False Data Injection Attacks Data Recovery in Smart Grids: A Graph Characteristics-Based Model10.1016/j.spes.2025.06.002 ↗
72. Dini, P., Elhanashi, A., Begni, A., Saponara, S., Zheng, Q., and Gasmi, K. (2023). Overview on Intrusion Detection Systems Design Exploiting Machine Learning for Networking Cybersecurity. Appl. Sci., 13.10.3390/app13137507 ↗
73. Liu, H., and Wang, H. (2023). Real-Time Anomaly Detection of Network Traffic Based on CNN. Symmetry, 15.10.3390/sym15061205 ↗
74. Reda, H.T., Ray, B., Peidaee, P., Anwar, A., Mahmood, A., Kalam, A., and Islam, N. (2021). Vulnerability and Impact Analysis of the IEC 61850 GOOSE Protocol in the Smart Grid. Sensors, 21.10.3390/s21041554 ↗
75. Vulnerabilities and countermeasures in electrical substations10.1016/j.ijcip.2020.100406 ↗
76. Bhattacharjee, T., Jamil, M., Alotaibi, M.A., Malik, H., and Nassar, M.E. (2022). Hardware Development and Interoperability Testing of a Multivendor-IEC-61850-Based Digital Substation. Energies, 15.10.3390/en15051785 ↗
77. Optimal reliability-centered maintenance strategy based on the failure modes and effect analysis in power distribution systems10.1016/j.epsr.2021.107647 ↗
78. Rastegari, A. (2017). Condition Based Maintenance in the Manufacturing Industry From Strategy to Implementation. [Ph.D. Thesis, Mälardalen University].
79. Management of an island and grid-connected microgrid using hybrid economic model predictive control with weather data10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115581 ↗
80. Optimal and economic operation of microgrids to leverage resilience benefits during grid outages10.1016/j.ijepes.2021.107137 ↗
81. Seamless transition of microgrid between islanded and grid-connected mode of operation10.1049/esi2.12004 ↗
82. Black start from renewable energy resources: Review and a case study of Great Britain10.1016/j.rser.2024.115143 ↗
83. Decentralized self-stabilizing primary control of microgrids10.1016/j.ijepes.2023.109477 ↗
84. Statistical development of microgrid resilience during islanding operations10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115724 ↗
85. Signal processing approaches for power quality disturbance classification: A comprehensive review10.1016/j.rineng.2025.104569 ↗
86. Aksan, F., Jasiński, M., Sikorski, T., Kaczorowska, D., Rezmer, J., Suresh, V., Leonowicz, Z., Kostyła, P., Szymańda, J., and Janik, P. (2021). Clustering Methods for Power Quality Measurements in Virtual Power Plant. Energies, 14.10.3390/en14185902 ↗
87. (2010). Voltage Characteristics of Electricity Supplied by Public Electricity Networks (Standard No. EN 50160).
88. Tobar-Rosero, O.A., Candelo-Becerra, J.E., and Zapata, G. (2022). Performance Analysis of Overcurrent Protection in a Digital Substation with Process Bus. Sustainability, 14.10.3390/su14137958 ↗
89. Simulation of the smart grid communications: Challenges, techniques, and future trends10.1016/j.compeleceng.2013.11.022 ↗
90. Dedicated Short-Range Wireless Communications for Intelligent Transportation System Applications10.1177/0361198105191000104 ↗
91. Exploring V2X in 5G networks: A comprehensive survey of location-based services in hybrid scenarios
92. Dynamically robust coordinated set point tracking of distributed DERs at point of common coupling10.1016/j.ijepes.2022.108481 ↗
93. A Consensus-Based Distributed Computational Intelligence Technique for Real-Time Optimal Control in Smart Distribution Grids10.1109/TETCI.2016.2635130 ↗
94. Empowering distribution system operators: A review of distributed energy resource forecasting techniques10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34800 ↗
95. Smart grid management: Integrating hybrid intelligent algorithms for microgrid energy optimization10.1016/j.egyr.2024.08.053 ↗
96. Impact of high penetration of renewable energy sources on grid frequency behaviour10.1016/j.ijepes.2022.108701 ↗
97. Hardware measurement of MMC time delay and its impact on the stability of grid-connected MMC-HVDC systems10.1016/j.ijepes.2025.110605 ↗
98. Pendleton, S.D., Andersen, H., Du, X., Shen, X., Meghjani, M., Eng, Y.H., Rus, D., and Ang, M.H. (2017). Machines Perception, Planning, Control, and Coordination for Autonomous Vehicles. Machines, 5.10.3390/machines5010006 ↗
99. Hierarchical control architecture of co-located hybrid power plants10.1016/j.ijepes.2022.108407 ↗
100. Nguyen, T.-L., Guillo-Sansano, E., Syed, M.H., Nguyen, V.-H., Blair, S.M., Reguera, L., Tran, Q.-T., Caire, R., Burt, G.M., and Gavriluta, C. (2018). Multi-Agent System with Plug and Play Feature for Distributed Secondary Control in Microgrid-Controller and Power Hardware-in-the-Loop Implementation. Energies, 11.10.3390/en11123253 ↗