DEM–FEM coupled simulation for PM-HIP: Mapping strategies, coupling architectures, verification and validation

Powder metallurgy hot isostatic pressing (PM-HIP) is a near-net-shape consolidation process, in which the prediction of densification behavior and final geometry depends strongly on powder packing heterogeneity established during filling. Discrete element method–finite element method (DEM–FEM) coupled simulation has emerged as a practical framework for linking particle-scale packing to continuum-scale densification analysis. This Review consolidates DEM–FEM coupled simulation methodologies for PM-HIP, with an emphasis on mapping strategies, coupling architectures, and verification and validation practices. The reliability of predictions is shown to depend primarily on the exchanged variables, mapping resolution, and the treatment of non-matching discretizations. Sequential one-way coupling remains the most robust and widely adopted route for practical PM-HIP simulations. This Review provides a structured reference to support reliable and reproducible DEM–FEM workflows for PM-HIP.