Toward continuous shrinkage measurement of poured earth: practical setup and underlying shrinking mechanisms
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract Continuous shrinkage measurement in earth-based materials remains technically challenging, particularly for high-water-content mixtures with low initial stiffness. In this study, a semi-cylindrical experimental setup, combined with digital image correlation (DIC) for measurements of surface strains and a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) for interior strains, is proposed and validated to track the shrinkage behavior of pourable earth materials. Mass loss, surface temperature, and capillary pressure were simultaneously measured and compared with those of conventional prismatic specimens. Both geometries exhibit comparable drying kinetics under identical environmental conditions, with an initial constant-rate period (CRP) followed by a falling-rate period (FRP). However, the semi-cylindrical geometry yields a shorter CRP and enhanced moisture uniformity across the drying depth, attributed to a higher surface-to-volume ratio. During the CRP, shrinkage increased linearly with the volume of evaporated water. In the FRP, shrinkage in both geometries followed the Biot–Bishop effective-stress framework. Although some degree of differential shrinkage remained within the semi-cylindrical specimen, the deformation measured in the interior corresponded more closely to macroscopic water loss, demonstrating that LVDT measurements allow tracking in a simple and practical manner the bulk shrinkage behavior during drying.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
References (77)
Show source-provided references
1. Van Damme H, Houben H (2018) Earth concrete. Stabilization revisited. Cem Concr Res 114:90–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.02.03510.1016/j.cemconres.2017.02.035 ↗
2. Fernandes J, Peixoto M, Mateus R, Gervásio H (2019) Life cycle analysis of environmental impacts of earthen materials in the Portuguese context: rammed earth and compressed earth blocks. J Clean Prod 241:118286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.11828610.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118286 ↗
3. Ben-Alon L, Loftness V, Harries KA, DiPietro G, Hameen EC (2019) Cradle to site life cycle assessment (LCA) of natural vs conventional building materials: a case study on cob earthen material. Build Environ 160:106150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.05.02810.1016/j.buildenv.2019.05.028 ↗
4. Houben H, Guillaud H (1994) Earth construction: a comprehensive guide. Practical Action Publishing, Rugby10.3362/9781780444826 ↗
5. Perrot A, Rangeard D, Courteille E (2018) 3D printing of earth-based materials: processing aspects. Constr Build Mater 172:670–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.01710.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.017 ↗
6. Curto A, Lanzoni L, Tarantino AM, Viviani M (2020) Shot-earth for sustainable constructions. Constr Build Mater 239:117775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.11777510.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117775 ↗
7. Faleschini F, Trento D, Masoomi M, Pellegrino C, Zanini MA (2023) Sustainable mixes for 3D printing of earth-based constructions. Constr Build Mater 398:132496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.13249610.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132496 ↗
8. Assunção J, Chadha K, Vasey L, Brumaud C, Escamilla EZ, Gramazio F, Kohler M, Habert G (2024) Contribution of production processes in environmental impact of low carbon materials made by additive manufacturing. Autom Constr 165:105545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2024.10554510.1016/j.autcon.2024.105545 ↗
9. Brumaud C, Du Y, Ardant D, Habert G (2024) Earth, the new liquid stone: development and perspectives. Mater Today Commun 39:108959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2024.10895910.1016/j.mtcomm.2024.108959 ↗
10. Sahana CM, Soda PRK, Dwivedi A, Kumar S, Kumar A, Pundir A, Dixit A, Gupta S (2024) 3D printing with stabilized earth: material development and effect of carbon sequestration on engineering performance. Cem Concr Compos 152:105653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2024.10565310.1016/j.cemconcomp.2024.105653 ↗
11. Ouellet-Plamondon CM, Habert G (2016) Self-compacted clay based concrete (SCCC): proof-of-concept. J Clean Prod 117:160–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.12.04810.1016/j.jclepro.2015.12.048 ↗
12. Gomaa M, Jabi W, Soebarto V, Xie YM (2022) Digital manufacturing for earth construction: a critical review. J Clean Prod 338:130630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.13063010.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130630 ↗
13. Bernard E, Rentsch D, Kuhn R, Habert G, Lura P (2024) Earth stabilisation with MgO-based cement. Cem Concr Res 186:107655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2024.10765510.1016/j.cemconres.2024.107655 ↗
14. Keita E, Perrot A (2024) Processing of earth-based materials: current situation and challenges ahead. RILEM Tech Lett 8:141–149. https://doi.org/10.21809/rilemtechlett.2023.18610.21809/rilemtechlett.2023.186 ↗
15. Landrou G, Brumaud C, Winnefeld F, Flatt RJ, Habert G (2016) Lime as an anti-plasticizer for self-compacting clay concrete. Materials (Basel) 9:33010.3390/ma9050330 ↗
16. Pinel A, Jorand Y, Olagnon C, Charlot A, Fleury E (2017) Towards poured earth construction mimicking cement solidification: demonstration of feasibility via a biosourced polymer. Mater Struct. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-017-1092-910.1617/s11527-017-1092-9 ↗
17. Landrou G, Brumaud C, Habert G (2018) Influence of magnesium on deflocculated kaolinite suspension: mechanism and kinetic control. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 544:196–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2017.12.04010.1016/j.colsurfa.2017.12.040 ↗
18. Du Y, Habert G, Brumaud C (2022) Design of tannin-based poured earth material via deflocculation–coagulation control: additive selection and tannin variation. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 10:14495–14502. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c0407810.1021/acssuschemeng.2c04078 ↗
19. Du Y, Habert G, Brumaud C (2022) Influence of tannin and iron ions on the water resistance of clay materials. Constr Build Mater 323:126571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.12657110.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126571 ↗
20. Ardant D, Brumaud C, Perrot A, Habert G (2023) Robust clay binder for earth-based concrete. Cem Concr Res 172:107207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2023.10720710.1016/j.cemconres.2023.107207 ↗
21. Ardant D, Brumaud C, Zosso N, Bernard E, Habert G (2024) Impact of silt chemical composition on deflocculation and coagulation of clay-rich paste. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 694:134147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2024.13414710.1016/j.colsurfa.2024.134147 ↗
22. Peron H, Laloui L, Hu L-B, Hueckel T (2013) Formation of drying crack patterns in soils: a deterministic approach. Acta Geotech 8:215–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-012-0184-510.1007/s11440-012-0184-5 ↗
23. Kanema JM, Eid J, Taibi S (2016) Shrinkage of earth concrete amended with recycled aggregates and superplasticizer: impact on mechanical properties and cracks. Mater Des 109:378–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.07.02510.1016/j.matdes.2016.07.025 ↗
24. Peron H, Hueckel T, Laloui L, Hu LB (2009) Fundamentals of desiccation cracking of fine-grained soils: experimental characterisation and mechanisms identification. Can Geotech J 46:1177–1201. https://doi.org/10.1139/T09-05410.1139/T09-054 ↗
25. Tang C-S, Shi B, Liu C, Suo W-B, Gao L (2011) Experimental characterization of shrinkage and desiccation cracking in thin clay layer. Appl Clay Sci 52:69–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2011.01.03210.1016/j.clay.2011.01.032 ↗
26. Abou Najm M, Jesiek J, Mohtar RH, Lura P, Sant G (2012) Assessing the role of the pore solution concentration on horizontal deformations in an unsaturated soil specimen during drying. Geoderma 187–188:31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2012.04.00910.1016/j.geoderma.2012.04.009 ↗
27. Tang C-S, Zhu C, Cheng Q, Zeng H, Xu J-J, Tian B-G, Shi B (2021) Desiccation cracking of soils: a review of investigation approaches, underlying mechanisms, and influencing factors. Earth Sci Rev 216:103586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.10358610.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103586 ↗
28. Amenuvor AC, Li G, Wu J, Hou Y, Chen W (2020) An image-based method for quick measurement of the soil shrinkage characteristics curve of soil slurry. Geoderma 363:114165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.11416510.1016/j.geoderma.2019.114165 ↗
29. Wei X, Hattab M, Bompard P, Fleureau J-M (2016) Highlighting some mechanisms of crack formation and propagation in clays on drying path. Geotechnique 66:287–300. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.14.P.22710.1680/jgeot.14.P.227 ↗
30. Qiu GY, Ben-Asher J (2010) Experimental determination of soil evaporation stages with soil surface temperature. Soil Sci Soc Am J 74:13–22. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2008.013510.2136/sssaj2008.0135 ↗
31. Hussary J, Alowaisy A, Yasufuku N, Ishikura R, Abdelhadi M (2022) Pore structure and falling rate stage of evaporation in homogeneous sandy soil profiles. Soils Found 62:101108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2022.10110810.1016/j.sandf.2022.101108 ↗
32. Yiotis AG, Stubos AK, Boudouvis AG, Yortsos YC (2001) A 2-D pore-network model of the drying of single-component liquids in porous media. Adv Water Resour 24:439–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0309-1708(00)00066-X10.1016/S0309-1708(00)00066-X ↗
33. Lehmann P, Assouline S, Or D (2008) Characteristic lengths affecting evaporative drying of porous media. Phys Rev E 77:056309. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.77.05630910.1103/PhysRevE.77.056309 ↗
34. Groenevelt PH, Grant CD (2001) Re‐evaluation of the structural properties of some British swelling soils. Eur J Soil Sci 52:469–477. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2389.2001.00388.x10.1046/j.1365-2389.2001.00388.x ↗
35. Cornelis WM, Corluy J, Medina H, Díaz J, Hartmann R, Van Meirvenne M, Ruiz ME (2006) Measuring and modelling the soil shrinkage characteristic curve. Geoderma 137:179–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2006.08.02210.1016/j.geoderma.2006.08.022 ↗
36. Hu LB, Péron H, Hueckel T, Laloui L (2013) Mechanisms and critical properties in drying shrinkage of soils: experimental and numerical parametric studies. Can Geotech J 50:536–549. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2012-006510.1139/cgj-2012-0065 ↗
37. Hu LB, Péron H, Hueckel T, Laloui L (2013) Desiccation shrinkage of non‐clayey soils: multiphysics mechanisms and a microstructural model. Numer Anal Methods Geomech 37:1761–1781. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.210810.1002/nag.2108 ↗
38. Kouta N, Saliba J, Saiyouri N (2021) Monitoring of earth concrete damage evolution during drying. Constr Build Mater 313:125340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.12534010.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125340 ↗
39. Kanema JM (2017) The influence of soil content on the mechanical properties, drying shrinkage and autogenous shrinkage of earth concrete. J Build Eng 13:68–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2017.07.00610.1016/j.jobe.2017.07.006 ↗
40. Gomes MI, Faria P, Gonçalves TD (2018) Earth-based mortars for repair and protection of rammed earth walls. Stabilization with mineral binders and fibers. J Clean Prod 172:2401–2414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.17010.1016/j.jclepro.2017.11.170 ↗
41. Sangma S, Tripura DD (2020) Experimental study on shrinkage behaviour of earth walling materials with fibers and stabilizer for cob building. Constr Build Mater 256:119449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.11944910.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119449 ↗
42. Bogas JA, Real S, Cruz R, Azevedo B (2023) Mechanical performance and shrinkage of compressed earth blocks stabilised with thermoactivated recycled cement. J Build Eng 79:107892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.10789210.1016/j.jobe.2023.107892 ↗
43. Assunção J, Brumaud C, Habert G (2025) A rheometric approach to investigate the effect of cellulose ether on crack mitigation in earth-based concrete. Cem Concr Compos 161:106077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2025.10607710.1016/j.cemconcomp.2025.106077 ↗
44. Kouta N, Saliba J, Saiyouri N (2020) Effect of flax fibers on early age shrinkage and cracking of earth concrete. Constr Build Mater 254:119315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.11931510.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119315 ↗
45. Eid J, Taibi S, Fleureau JM, Hattab M (2015) Drying, cracks and shrinkage evolution of a natural silt intended for a new earth building material. Impact of reinforcement. Constr Build Mater 86:120–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.03.11510.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.03.115 ↗
46. Hejazi SM, Sheikhzadeh M, Abtahi SM, Zadhoush A (2012) A simple review of soil reinforcement by using natural and synthetic fibers. Constr Build Mater 30:100–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.11.04510.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.11.045 ↗
47. Laborel-Préneron A, Aubert JE, Magniont C, Tribout C, Bertron A (2016) Plant aggregates and fibers in earth construction materials: a review. Constr Build Mater 111:719–734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.02.11910.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.02.119 ↗
48. Ghourchian S, Wyrzykowski M, Lura P (2018) A poromechanics model for plastic shrinkage of fresh cementitious materials. Cem Concr Res 109:120–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.04.01310.1016/j.cemconres.2018.04.013 ↗
49. Ghourchian S, Wyrzykowski M, Baquerizo L, Lura P (2018) Susceptibility of Portland cement and blended cement concretes to plastic shrinkage cracking. Cem Concr Compos 85:44–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2017.10.00210.1016/j.cemconcomp.2017.10.002 ↗
50. Wyrzykowski M, Di Bella C, Sirtoli D, Toropovs N, Lura P (2025) Plastic shrinkage of concrete made with calcined clay-limestone cement. Cem Concr Res 189:107784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2025.10778410.1016/j.cemconres.2025.107784 ↗
51. Lura P, Toropovs N, Justs J, Shakoorioskooie M, Münch B, Griffa M (2025) Mitigation of plastic shrinkage cracking with natural fibers—kenaf, abaca, coir, jute and sisal. Cem Concr Compos 155:105827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2024.10582710.1016/j.cemconcomp.2024.105827 ↗
52. Gao P, Zhang T, Luo R, Wei J, Yu Q (2014) Improvement of autogenous shrinkage measurement for cement paste at very early age: corrugated tube method using non-contact sensors. Constr Build Mater 55:57–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.12.08610.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.12.086 ↗
53. Şahmaran M, Al-Emam M, Yıldırım G, Şimşek YE, Erdem TK, Lachemi M (2015) High-early-strength ductile cementitious composites with characteristics of low early-age shrinkage for repair of infrastructures. Mater Struct 48:1389–1403. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-013-0241-z10.1617/s11527-013-0241-z ↗
54. Li L, Dao V, Lura P (2021) Autogenous deformation and coefficient of thermal expansion of early-age concrete: initial outcomes of a study using a newly-developed Temperature Stress Testing Machine. Cem Concr Compos 119:103997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.10399710.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.103997 ↗
55. Wyrzykowski M, Ghourchian S, Münch B, Griffa M, Kaestner A, Lura P (2021) Plastic shrinkage of mortars cured with a paraffin-based compound—bimodal neutron/X-ray tomography study. Cem Concr Res 140:106289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2020.10628910.1016/j.cemconres.2020.106289 ↗
56. Mohan MK, Rahul AV, Villagran-Zaccardi Y, De Schutter G, Van Tittelboom K (2024) A rheometric approach to assess plastic shrinkage and implications of early age drying on the microstructure of cement-based materials. Cem Concr Res 180:107504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2024.10750410.1016/j.cemconres.2024.107504 ↗
57. Bernard E, Lothenbach B, Cau-Dit-Coumes C, Chlique C, Dauzères A, Pochard I (2018) Magnesium and calcium silicate hydrates, Part I: investigation of the possible magnesium incorporation in calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and of the calcium in magnesium silicate hydrate (M-S-H). Appl Geochem 89:229–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2017.12.00510.1016/j.apgeochem.2017.12.005 ↗
58. Roussel N, Coussot P (2005) “Fifty-cent rheometer” for yield stress measurements: from slump to spreading flow. J Rheol 49:705–718. https://doi.org/10.1122/1.187904110.1122/1.1879041 ↗
59. Chauvet F, Duru P, Geoffroy S, Prat M (2009) Three periods of drying of a single square capillary tube. Phys Rev Lett 103:124502. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.12450210.1103/PhysRevLett.103.124502 ↗
60. C09 Committee, Test Method for Evaluating Plastic Shrinkage Cracking of Restrained Fiber Reinforced Concrete (Using a Steel Form Insert), (n.d.). https://doi.org/10.1520/C1579-13.10.1520/C1579-13 ↗
61. Wysocka A, Stępniewski W, Horn R (2006) Shrinkage properties of three clay materials at different temperatures. Int Agrophys 20:255–260
62. Reatto A, Da Silva EM, Bruand A, Martins ES, Lima JEFW (2008) Validity of the centrifuge method for determining the water retention properties of tropical soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 72:1547–1553. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2007.0355N10.2136/sssaj2007.0355N ↗
63. Lozano JC, Blanco Rodríguez P, Vera Tomé F, Maldonado R, Medeiros AS, Prieto C (2020) A system for obtaining soil solution extracts and soil water retention curves using a bench centrifuge with fixed angle rotors. Geoderma 361:114063. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.11406310.1016/j.geoderma.2019.114063 ↗
64. Van Genuchten MT (1980) A closed‐form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 44:892–898. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x10.2136/sssaj1980.03615995004400050002x ↗
65. Haghighi E, Shahraeeni E, Lehmann P, Or D (2013) Evaporation rates across a convective air boundary layer are dominated by diffusion. Water Resour Res 49:1602–1610. https://doi.org/10.1002/wrcr.2016610.1002/wrcr.20166 ↗
66. Lura P (2003) Autogenous deformation and internal curing of concrete. Delft University of Technology, Delft
67. Style RW, Peppin SSL, Cocks ACF (2011) Mud peeling and horizontal crack formation in drying clays: mud peeling in drying clays. J Geophys Res 116:n/a-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JF00184210.1029/2010JF001842 ↗
68. Zeng H, Tang C-S, Cui Y-J, Najdi A (2025) Compressive stress induced by desiccation shrinkage in clayey soils. Appl Clay Sci 267:107729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2025.10772910.1016/j.clay.2025.107729 ↗
69. Peng X, Horn R (2007) Anisotropic shrinkage and swelling of some organic and inorganic soils. Eur J Soil Sci 58:98–107. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2006.00808.x10.1111/j.1365-2389.2006.00808.x ↗
70. Shokri N, Or D (2011) What determines drying rates at the onset of diffusion controlled stage‐2 evaporation from porous media? Water Resour Res 47:2010WR010284. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010WR01028410.1029/2010WR010284 ↗
71. Di Bella C, Wyrzykowski M, Lura P (2017) Evaluation of the ultimate drying shrinkage of cement-based mortars with poroelastic models. Mater Struct 50:52. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-016-0870-010.1617/s11527-016-0870-0 ↗
72. Lu N, Dong Y (2017) Correlation between soil-shrinkage curve and water-retention characteristics. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)gt.1943-5606.000174110.1061/(asce)gt.1943-5606.0001741 ↗
73. Thota SK, Cao TD, Vahedifard F (2021) Poisson’s ratio characteristic curve of unsaturated soils. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)gt.1943-5606.000242410.1061/(asce)gt.1943-5606.0002424 ↗
74. Berli M, Eggers CG, Accorsi ML, Or D (2006) Theoretical analysis of fluid inclusions for in situ soil stress and deformation measurements. Soil Sci Soc Am J 70:1441–1452. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2005.017110.2136/sssaj2005.0171 ↗
75. Zhang C, Hu S, Lu N (2022) Unified elastic modulus characteristic curve equation for variably saturated soils. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 148:04021171. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.000271810.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002718 ↗
76. Ghourchian S, Wyrzykowski M, Lura P (2016) The bleeding test: a simple method for obtaining the permeability and bulk modulus of fresh concrete. Cem Concr Res 89:249–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2016.08.01610.1016/j.cemconres.2016.08.016 ↗
77. Dong Y, Lu N, Fox PJ (2020) Drying-induced consolidation in soil. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)gt.1943-5606.000232710.1061/(asce)gt.1943-5606.0002327 ↗