Low-Concentration Doping of 3d Transition Metals on the Thermoelectric Properties of Mg ₃ (Bi, Sb) ₂

While transition metal doping is widely adopted to optimize Mg 3 (Bi, Sb) 2 -based thermoelectrics, conventional high-concentration doping inevitably induces detrimental grain boundary segregation, creating a convoluted mixed effect that obscures the intrinsic regulatory roles of the dopants. To systematically unveil these fundamental impacts, we establish a low-concentration doping paradigm. By synergizing a precisely controlled low-concentration strategy with an optimized synthesis process, 3d transition metals (Mn, Fe, Co, Cu) are homogeneously incorporated into the bulk lattice without boundary enrichment. Based on this homogeneous microstructural framework, distinct doping effects are systematically revealed. Fe and Co act as highly efficient electron donors, elevating the carrier concentration to >1.5 × 10 20 cm –3 . In contrast, Mn fundamentally optimizes the carrier scattering mechanism via effective mass reduction, leading to a remarkable 2.6-fold enhancement in carrier mobility. Consequently, the lightly Mn-doped sample achieves an optimal balance, yielding a peak power factor of ∼30.7 μW/(K 2 cm) and a maximum zT of 1.03. Furthermore, this homogeneously doped sample demonstrates optimized macroscopic durability, retaining consistent electrical properties after 3-month ambient air exposure and withstanding 50 rigorous thermal shock cycles. Ultimately, this work clarifies how homogeneously incorporated dopants regulate transport properties and stabilize the crystal matrix, establishing precise low-concentration as a robust framework for high-performance and durable thermoelectrics.