Lethal Interactions of Atomically Precise Gold Nanoclusters and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus Bacterial Cells

Ultrasmall metal nanoclusters (NCs) are employed in an array of diagnostic and therapeutic applications due to their tunable photoluminescence, high biocompatibility, polyvalent effect, ease of modification, and photothermal stability. However, gold nanoclusters’ (AuNCs’) intrinsically antimicrobial properties remain poorly explored and are not well understood. Here, we share an insight into the antimicrobial action of atomically precise AuNCs based on their ability to passively translocate across the bacterial membrane. Functionalized by a hydrophilic modified-bidentate sulfobetaine zwitterionic molecule (AuNC-ZwBuEt) or a more hydrophobic monodentate-thiolate, mercaptohexanoic acid (AuNC-MHA) molecule, 2 nm AuNCs were lethal to both Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. The bactericidal efficiency was found to be bacterial strain-, time-, and concentration-dependent. The direct visualizations of the translocation of AuNCs and AuNC–cell and subcellular interactions were investigated using cryo-soft X-ray nano-tomography, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning TEM energy-dispersive spectroscopy analyses. AuNC-MHA were identified in the bacterial cytoplasm within 30 min, without evidence of the loss of membrane integrity. It is proposed that the bactericidal effect of AuNCs is attributed to their size, which allows for efficient energy-independent translocation across the cell membrane. The internalization of both AuNCs caused massive internal damage to the cells, including collapsed subcellular structures and altered cell morphology, leading to the eventual loss of cellular integrity.