Tailoring of High-Valent Sn-Doped Porous Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃/C Nanoarchitechtonics: An Ultra High-Rate Cathode for Sodium-Ion Batteries

NASICON structured Na 3 V 2 (PO 4 ) 3 (NVP) has captured enormous attention as a potential cathode for next-generation sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), owing to its sturdy crystal structure and high theoretical capacity. Nonetheless, its poor intrinsic electronic conductivity has led to inferior electrochemical performance in terms of rate capability and long cycling performance. To address this problem, a combined strategy is adopted, such as (1) carbon coating and (2) high valent Sn 4+ ion doping in the lattice site of vanadium in the NVP cathode. Carbon coating can effectively enhance the surface electronic conductivity, wherein high-valent Sn 4+ improves the bulk intrinsic electronic conductivity of the materials. Moreover, Sn is a well-known alloying/dealloying type anode for SIBs; thus, doping of such metal in cathode materials will assume the role of structure stabilizing pillars and establishing high-performing cathode materials. Herein, Na 3 V 2– x Sn x (PO 4 ) 3 /C (denoted as Sn( x )-NVP/C, where x = 0.00, 0.03, 0.05, 0.07, 0.1) were synthesized via sol–gel route, followed by calcination at 800 °C. XRD, Raman, XPS, and electron microscopy data confirmed the high purity of the synthesized cathode. The optimized Sn(0.07)-NVP/C exhibited excellent electrochemical performance in terms of high rate capability and long cycling performance, a high appreciable capacity of 98 mAh g –1 with capacity retention of 85% after 500 cycles. Similarly, at a high current of 20C, it is still able to deliver a stable capacity of 76 mAh g –1 with 85% capacity retention after 3000 cycles. The rate capability study indicates the high current tolerance of Sn(0.07)-NVP/C up to 70 C with a capacity delivery of 55 mAh g –1 . It is worth mentioning that CV and EIS analysis for Sn(0.07)-NVP/C cathode displayed minimum voltage polarization and enhanced diffusion coefficient. Moreover, DFT calculation also proved that the electronic and ionic conductivity of NVP is promoted by Sn doping. Hence, the present results demonstrated that Sn(0.07)-NVP/C is considered a promising cathode for sodium-ion battery application.