Recent developments in TiO2 as n- and p-type transparent semiconductors: synthesis, modification, properties, and energy-related applications

TiO2-based thin films and nanomaterials have been fabricated via physical and solution-based techniques by various research groups around the globe. Generally, most applications of TiO2 involve photocatalytic activity for water and air purification, self-cleaning surfaces, antibacterial activity, and superhydrophilicity. As a wide-bandgap semiconductor, modified TiO2 belongs to a class of materials called transparent semiconducting oxides (TSOs), which are simultaneously optically transparent and electrically conductive. TSOs continue to be in high demand for a variety of applications ranging from transparent electronics and sensor devices to light detecting and emitting devices in telecommunications. However, reports on TiO2 applications as an effective TSO for transparent electronics applications have been limited. In general, TiO2 is intrinsically an n-type semiconductor but can be doped to have p-type semiconductivity. This provides a very important opportunity to fabricate all-transparent homojunction devices for light harvesting and energy storage. P-type TSOs have recently attracted tremendous interest in the field of active devices for emerging transparent electronics for potential use in ultra-violet light-based solar cells. Therefore, a detailed overview of the synthesis, band structure modification via doping, properties, and applications of modified TiO2 as n- and p-type TSOs is warranted. This article comprehensively reviews the latest developments. The discussion includes solution-based wet chemical techniques and vacuum-based dry physical techniques fabricating TiO2–TSOs. The synthesis of p-TiO2 in particular is discussed in detail as it may provide interesting breakthroughs in emerging transparent electronics applications. Also, the structural, optical, and electrical properties of TiO2 are discussed in the context of TSO applications, specifically the defect chemistry of TiO2 to obtain n- and p-type semiconductivity, which could provide interesting insights into the band structure engineering of TiO2 for conductivity reversal. Applications of both n- and p-type TiO2 have been reviewed in detail in relation to thin film transparent homo/heterojunction devices, dye-sensitized solar cells, electrochromic displays, and other energy-related applications.