Probing structural and chemical evolution in (AlxGa1−x)2O3 using atom probe tomography: A review
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract (AlxGa1−x)2O3 is a novel ultra‐wide bandgap semiconductor with the potential to dominate future power electronics industries. High‐performance devices demand high Al content in (AlxGa1−x)2O3 but are limited by crystallinity degradation resulting from phase separation. Additionally, the solubility limit of Al is still under debate, and conclusive research is in progress. (AlxGa1−x)2O3 is also limited in high‐frequency applications owing to low carrier mobility and requires n‐type doping. For commercializing this material, the major obstacle is understanding dopant's behavior in the host (AlxGa1−x)2O3. To investigate these issues, an advanced characterization technique, atom probe tomography (APT), was employed to analyze the structural‐chemical evolution of (AlxGa1−x)2O3. In this review, we summarized our recent works on the structure‐chemistry investigation of (AlxGa1−x)2O3 with alloy composition and doping interaction. We introduced machine learning algorithms on APT data to reveal unrivaled knowledge, previously not achievable with conventional methodologies. The outstanding capabilities of APT to study (AlxGa1−x)2O3 with Al composition and doping will be considered significant for the wide bandgap semiconductors community.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Electronic and Structural Properties of Oxides · Ga2O3 and related materials · Semiconductor materials and devices
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. J.B. Casady and R.W. Johnson: Status of silicon carbide (SiC) as a wide-bandgap semiconductor for high-temperature applications: A review. Solid-State Electron. 39, 1409–1422 (1996).10.1016/0038-1101(96)00045-7 ↗
2. S.J. Pearton, C.R. Abernathy, M.E. Overberg, G. T. Thaler, D.P. Norton, N. Theodoropoulou, A.F. Hebard, Y.D. Park, F. Ren, J. Kim, and L.A. Boatner : Wide band gap ferromagnetic semiconductors and oxides. J. Appl. Phys. 93, 1–13 (2003).10.1063/1.1517164 ↗
3. E. Monroy, F. Omnès, and F. Calle: Wide-bandgap semiconductor ultraviolet photodetectors. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 18, R33–R51 (2003).10.1088/0268-1242/18/4/201 ↗
4. S.J. Pearton, C.R. Abernathy, G.T. Thaler, R.M. Frazier, D.P. Norton, F. Ren, Y.D. Park, J.M. Zavada, I. A. Buyanova, W.M. Chen, and A.F. Hebard : Wide bandgap GaN-based semiconductors for spintronics. J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 16, R209–R245 (2004).
5. M. Razeghi and M. Henini: Preface. In Optoelectronic Devices: III Nitrides, M. Razeghi and M. Henini, eds. (Elsevier, Oxford, 2005); pp. v–vi.10.1016/B978-008044426-0/50000-6 ↗
6. M. Razeghi and M. Henini: Chapter 1—introduction. In Optoelectronic Devices: III Nitrides, M. Razeghi and M. Henini, eds. (Elsevier, Oxford, 2005); pp. 1–8.10.1016/B978-008044426-0/50001-8 ↗
7. S.J. Pearton, F. Ren, M. Tadjer, and J. Kim: Perspective: Ga2O3 for ultra-high power rectifiers and MOSFETS. J. Appl. Phys. 124, 220901 (2018).10.1063/1.5062841 ↗
8. J.Y. Tsao, S. Chowdhury, M.A. Hollis, D. Jena, N.M. Johnson, K.A. Jones, R.J. Kaplar, S. Rajan, C.G. Van de Walle, E. Bellotti, C.L. Chua, R. Collazo, M.E. Coltrin, J.A. Cooper, K.R. Evans, S. Graham, T.A. Grotjohn, E.R. Heller, M. Higashiwaki, M.S. Islam, P.W. Juodawlkis, M.A. Khan, A.D. Koehler, J.H. Leach, U.K. Mishra, R.J. Nemanich, R.C.N. Pilawa-Podgurski, J.B. Shealy, Z. Sitar, M.J. Tadjer, A.F. Witulski, M. Wraback, and J.A. Simmons, : Ultrawide-bandgap semiconductors: Research opportunities and challenges. Adv. Electron. Mater. 4, 1600501 (2018).10.1002/aelm.201600501 ↗
9. X. Ma, Y. Zhang, L. Dong, and R. Jia: First-principles calculations of electronic and optical properties of aluminum-doped β-Ga2O3 with intrinsic defects. Results Phys. 7, 1582–1589 (2017).10.1016/j.rinp.2017.04.023 ↗
10. B.W. Krueger, C.S. Dandeneau, E.M. Nelson, S.T. Dunham, F.S. Ohuchi, and M.A. Olmstead: Variation of band gap and lattice parameters of beta-(AlxGa1-x)2O3 powder produced by solution combustion synthesis. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 99, 2467–2473 (2016).10.1111/jace.14222 ↗
11. Y.W. Zhang, A. Neal, Z Xia, C. Joishi, J.M. Johnson, Y. Zheng, S. Bajaj, M. Brenner, D. Dorsey, K. Chabak, G. Jessen, J. Hwang, S. Mou, J.P. Heremans, S. Rajan, : Demonstration of high mobility and quantum transport in modulation-doped beta-(AlxGa1-x)2O3/Ga2O3 heterostructures. Appl. Phys. Lett. 112, 173502–173505 (2018).10.1063/1.5025704 ↗
12. F.B. Zhang, K. Saito, T. Tanaka, M. Nishio, M. Arita, and Q.X. Guo: Wide bandgap engineering of (AlGa)2O3 films. Appl. Phys. Lett. 105, 162107-1–162107-5 (2014).
13. G.T. Dang, T. Yasuoka, Y. Tagashira, T. Tadokoro, W. Theiss, and T. Kawaharamura: Bandgap engineering of α-(AlxGa1-x)2O3 by a mist chemical vapor deposition two-chamber system and verification of Vegard's Law. Appl. Phys. Lett. 113, 062102 (2018).10.1063/1.5037678 ↗
14. E. Ahmadi, O.S. Koksaldi, X. Zheng, T. Mates, Y. Oshima, U.K. Mishra, J.S. Speck, : Demonstration of β-(AlxGa1−x)2O3/β-Ga2O3 modulation doped field-effect transistors with Ge as dopant grown via plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy. Appl. Phys. Express 10, 071101 (2017).10.7567/APEX.10.071101 ↗
15. S. Krishnamoorthy, Z. Xia, C. Joishi, Y. Zhang, J. McGlone, J. Johnson, M. Brenner, A.R. Arehart, J. Hwang, S. Lodha, and S. Rajan, : Modulation-doped β-(Al0.2Ga0.8)2O3/Ga2O3 field-effect transistor. Appl. Phys. Lett. 111, 023502 (2017).10.1063/1.4993569 ↗
16. Y. Zhang, C. Joishi, Z. Xia, M. Brenner, S. Lodha, and S. Rajan: Demonstration of β-(AlxGa1-x)2O3/Ga2O3 double heterostructure field effect transistors. Appl. Phys. Lett. 112, 233503 (2018).10.1063/1.5037095 ↗
17. E. Ahmadi, Y. Oshima, F. Wu, and J.S. Speck: Schottky barrier height of Ni to β-(AlxGa1−x)2O3 with different compositions grown by plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 32, 035004 (2017).10.1088/1361-6641/aa53a7 ↗
18. A. Vaidya, J. Sarker, Y. Zhang, L. Lubecki, J. Wallace, J.D. Poplawsky, K. Sasaki, A. Kuramata, A. Goyal, J.A. Gardella, B. Mazumder, and U. Singisetti, : Structural, band and electrical characterization of β-(Al0.19Ga0.81)2O3 films grown by molecular beam epitaxy on Sn doped β-Ga2O3 substrate. J. Appl. Phys. 126, 095702 (2019).10.1063/1.5113509 ↗
19. W.Y. Weng, T.J. Hsueh, S.J. Chang, S.C. Hung, G.J. Huang, H.T. Hsueh, Z.D. Huang, C.J. Chiu, : An (AlxGa1-x)2O3 metal-semiconductor-metal VUV photodetector. IEEE Sens. J. 11, 1795–1799 (2011).10.1109/JSEN.2011.2104947 ↗
20. S.H. Yuan, C.C. Wang, S.Y. Huang, and D.S. Wuu: Improved responsivity drop from 250 to 200nm in sputtered gallium oxide photodetectors by incorporating trace aluminum. IEEE Electron Device Lett. 39, 220–223 (2018).10.1109/LED.2017.2782693 ↗
21. C.C. Wang, S.H. Yuan, S.L. Ou, S.Y. Huang, K.Y. Lin, Y.A. Chen, P.W. Hsiao, and D.S. Wuu, : Growth and characterization of co-sputtered aluminum-gallium oxide thin films on sapphire substrates. J. Alloys Compd. 765, 894–900 (2018).10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.06.270 ↗
22. G.E. Jellison and F.A. Modine: Erratum: ‘‘Parameterization of the optical functions of amorphous materials in the interband region’’ [Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 371 (1996)]. Appl. Phys. Lett. 69, 2137–2137 (1996).10.1063/1.118155 ↗
23. H. Ito, K. Kaneko, and S. Fujita: Growth and band gap control of corundum-structured alpha-(AlGa)2O3 thin films on sapphire by spray-assisted mist chemical vapor deposition. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 51, 100207-1–100207-3 (2012).
24. T. Uchida, R. Jinno, S. Takemoto, K. Kaneko, and S. Fujita: Evaluation of band alignment of α-Ga2O3/α-(AlxGa1−x)2O3heterostructures by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 57, 040314 (2018).10.7567/JJAP.57.040314 ↗
25. Q. Feng, X. Li, G. Han, L. Huang, F. Li, W. Tang, J. Zhang, and Y. Hao : (AlGa)2O3 solar-blind photodetectors on sapphire with wider bandgap and improved responsivity. Opt. Mater. Express 7, 1240–1248 (2017).10.1364/OME.7.001240 ↗
26. C. Kranert, M. Jenderka, J. Lenzner, M. Lorenz, H. von Wenckstern, R. Schmidt-Grund, and M. Grundmann : Lattice parameters and Raman-active phonon modes of β-(AlxGa1−x)2O3. J. Appl. Phys. 117, 125703 (2015).10.1063/1.4915627 ↗
27. R. Wakabayashi, T. Oshima, M. Hattori, K. Sasaki, T. Masui, A. Kuramata, S. Yamakoshi, K. Yoshimatsu, and A. Ohtomo : Oxygen-radical-assisted pulsed-laser deposition of β-Ga2O3 and β-(AlxGa1−x)2O3 films. J. Cryst. Growth 424, 77–79 (2015).10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2015.05.005 ↗
28. A.F.M.A.U. Bhuiyan, Z. Feng, J.M. Johnson, H.L. Huang, J. Sarker, M. Zhu, M.R. Karim, B. Mazumder, J. Hwang, and H. Zhao : Phase transformation in MOCVD growth of (AlxGa1−x)2O3 thin films. APL Mater. 8, 031104 (2020).10.1063/1.5140345 ↗
29. J. Sarker, S. Broderick, A.F.M.A.U. Bhuiyan, Z. Feng, H. Zhao, and B. Mazumder: A combined approach of atom probe tomography and unsupervised machine learning to understand phase transformation in (AlxGa1−x)2O3. Appl. Phys. Lett. 116, 152101 (2020).10.1063/5.0002049 ↗
30. T. Oshima, T. Okuno, N. Arai, Y. Kobayashi, and S. Fujita: Beta-Al2xGa2-2xO3 thin film growth by molecular beam epitaxy. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 48 (2009).10.1143/JJAP.48.070202 ↗
31. V.G. Hill, R. Roy, and E.F. Osborn: The system alumina gallia water. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 35, 135–142 (1952).10.1111/j.1151-2916.1952.tb13087.x ↗
32. Y. Zhang, A. Mauze, and J.S. Speck: Development of Beta-(AlxGa1-x)2O3/Ga2O3 Heterostructures (University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA, 2019).
33. S.W. Kaun, F. Wu, and J.S. Speck: Beta-(AlxGa1-x)2O3/Ga2O3 (010) heterostructures grown on beta-Ga2O3 (010) substrates by plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy. J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A 33, 041508-1–041508-9 (2015).10.1116/1.4922340 ↗
34. R. Miller, F. Alema, and A. Osinsky: Epitaxial β-Ga2O3 and β-(AlxGa1-x)2O3/β-Ga2O3 heterostructures growth for power electronics. IEEE Trans. Semicond. Manuf. 31, 467–474 (2018).10.1109/TSM.2018.2873488 ↗
35. L. Dong, R. Jia, B. Xin, B. Peng, and Y. Zhang: Effects of oxygen vacancies on the structural and optical properties of β-Ga2O3. Sci. Rep. 7, 1–12 (2017).10.1038/s41598-016-0028-x ↗
36. J.B. Varley, A. Perron, V. Lordi, D. Wickramaratne, and J.L. Lyons: Prospects for n-type doping of (AlxGa1−x)2O3 alloys. Appl. Phys. Lett. 116, 172104 (2020).10.1063/5.0006224 ↗
37. A. Hassa, H.v. Wenckstern, L. Vines, and M. Grundmann: Influence of oxygen pressure on growth of Si-doped β-(AlxGa1−x)2O3 thin films on c-sapphire substrates by pulsed laser deposition. ECS J. Solid State Sci. Technol. 8, Q3217–Q3220 (2019).10.1149/2.0411907jss ↗
38. A.F.M. Anhar Uddin Bhuiyan, Z. Feng, J.M. Johnson, Z. Chen, H.L. Huang, J. Hwang, and H. Zhao, : MOCVD epitaxy of β-(AlxGa1−x)2O3 thin films on (010) Ga2O3 substrates and N-type doping. Appl. Phys. Lett. 115, 120602 (2019).10.1063/1.5123495 ↗
39. W. Götz, N. Johnson, C. Chen, H. Liu, C. Kuo, and W. Imler: Activation energies of Si donors in GaN. Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 3144–3146 (1996).10.1063/1.115805 ↗
40. A. Uedono, K. Tenjinbayashi, T. Tsutsui, Y. Shimahara, H. Miyake, K. Hiramatsu, N. Oshima, R. Suzuki, and S. Ishibashi : Native cation vacancies in Si-doped AlGaN studied by monoenergetic positron beams. J. Appl. Phys. 111, 013512 (2012).10.1063/1.3675270 ↗
41. S.F. Chichibu, H. Miyake, Y. Ishikawa, M. Tashiro, T. Ohtomo, K. Furusawa, K. Hazu, K. Hiramatsu, and A. Uedono : Impacts of Si-doping and resultant cation vacancy formation on the luminescence dynamics for the near-band-edge emission of Al0.6Ga0.4N films grown on AlN templates by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy. J. Appl. Phys. 113, 213506 (2013).10.1063/1.4807906 ↗
42. D. Gogova, G. Wagner, M. Baldini, M. Schmidbauer, K. Irmscher, R. Schewski, Z. Galazka, M. Albrecht, and R. Fornari : Structural properties of Si-doped β-Ga2O3 layers grown by MOVPE. J. Cryst. Growth 401, 665–669 (2014).10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2013.11.056 ↗
43. Z. Zhang, E. Farzana, A. Arehart, and S.A. Ringel: Deep level defects throughout the bandgap of (010) β-Ga2O3 detected by optically and thermally stimulated defect spectroscopy. Appl. Phys. Lett. 108, 052105 (2016).10.1063/1.4941429 ↗
44. S. Chichibu, A. Iwai, Y. Nakahara, S. Matsumoto, H. Higuchi, L. Wei, and S. Tanigawa : Monoenergetic positron beam study of Si-doped GaAs epilayers grown by low-pressure metalorganic chemical vapor deposition using tertiarybutylarsine. J. Appl. Phys. 73, 3880–3885 (1993).10.1063/1.352900 ↗
45. M.A. Khan, S.P. Ringer, and R. Zheng: Atom probe tomography on semiconductor devices. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 3, 1500713 (2016).10.1002/admi.201500713 ↗
46. S.M. Davidson: Semiconductor material assessment by scanning electron microscopy. J. Microsc. 110, 177–204 (1977).10.1111/j.1365-2818.1977.tb00032.x ↗
47. X. Wei, L. Zhao, J. Wang, Y. Zeng, and J. Li: Characterization of nitride-based LED materials and devices using TOF-SIMS. Surf. Interface Anal. 46, 299–302 (2014).10.1002/sia.5634 ↗
48. M. Bosman, Y. Zhang, C.K. Cheng, X. Li, X. Wu, X.L. Pey, C.T. Lin, Y.W. Chen, S.H. Hsu, andC.H. Hsu : The distribution of chemical elements in Al- or La-capped high-κ metal gate stacks. Appl. Phys. Lett. 97, 103504 (2010).10.1063/1.3478446 ↗
49. N. Nakagiri, T. Yamamoto, H. Sugimura, Y. Suzuki, M. Miyashita, and S. Watanabe: Application of scanning capacitance microscopy to semiconductor devices. Nanotechnology 8, A32–A37 (1997).10.1088/0957-4484/8/3A/007 ↗
50. M. Grasserbauer and G. Stingeder: Surface analysis of semiconductors with SIMS. TrAC, Trends Anal. Chem. 3, 133–139 (1984).10.1016/0165-9936(84)80012-6 ↗
51. T.F. Kelly, D.J. Larson, K. Thompson, R.L. Alvis, J.H. Bunton, J.D. Olson, andB.P. Gorman : Atom probe tomography of electronic materials. Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 37, 681–727 (2007).10.1146/annurev.matsci.37.052506.084239 ↗
52. O.G. Licata and B. Mazumder: Application of atom probe tomography for advancing GaN based technology. Int. J. High Speed Electron. Syst. 28, 1940005 (2019).10.1142/S0129156419400056 ↗
53. A.A. Gribb and T. Kelly: Atom probe analysis. Adv. Mater. Process. 162, 31–34 (2004).
54. B. Gault, M.P. Moody, J.M. Cairney, and S.P.J.M.T. Ringer: Atom probe crystallography. Mater. Today 15, 378–386 (2012).10.1016/S1369-7021(12)70164-5 ↗
55. M. Miller and E.J.M. Kenik: Atom probe tomography: A technique for nanoscale characterization. Microsc. Microanal. 10, 336–341 (2004).10.1017/S1431927604040577 ↗
56. T.F. Kelly and M. Miller: Atom probe tomography. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 031101 (2007).10.1063/1.2709758 ↗
57. D.J. Larson, T. Prosa, R.M. Ulfig, B.P. Geiser, and T.F. Kelly: Local Electrode Atom Probe Tomography (Springer Science, New York, United States, 2013).10.1007/978-1-4614-8721-0 ↗
58. B. Mazumder, M.H. Wong, C.A. Hurni, J.Y. Zhang, U.K. Mishra, and J.S. Speck: Asymmetric interfacial abruptness in N-polar and Ga-polar GaN/AlN/GaN heterostructures. Appl. Phys. Lett. 101, 091601 (2012).10.1063/1.4748116 ↗
59. B. Mazumder, X. Liu, R. Yeluri, F. Wu, U.K. Mishra, and J.S. Speck: Atom probe tomography studies of Al2O3 gate dielectrics on GaN. J. Appl. Phys. 116, 134101 (2014).10.1063/1.4896498 ↗
60. S.W. Kaun, B. Mazumder, M.N. Fireman, E.C.H. Kyle, U.K. Mishra, and J.S. Speck: Pure AlN layers in metal-polar AlGaN/AlN/GaN and AlN/GaN heterostructures grown by low-temperature ammonia-based molecular beam epitaxy. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 30, 055010 (2015).10.1088/0268-1242/30/5/055010 ↗
61. H. Li, B. Mazumder, B. Bonef, S. Keller, S. Wienecke, J.S. Speck, S.P. Denbaars, andU.K. Mishra : Characterization of N-polar AlN in GaN/AlN/(Al,Ga)N heterostructures grown by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 32, 115004 (2017).10.1088/1361-6641/aa8b30 ↗
62. J.E. Schmidt, L. Peng, A.L. Paioni, H.L. Ehren, W. Guo, B. Mazumder, D.A.M. de Winter, Ö Attila, D. Fu, A.D. Chowdhury, K. Houben, M. Baldus, J.D. Poplawsky, and B.M. Weckhuysen : Isolating clusters of light elements in molecular sieves with atom probe tomography. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 140, 9154–9158 (2018).10.1021/jacs.8b04494 ↗
63. R. Emma, I. Mahaboob, K. Hogan, S. Tozier, V. Meyers, B. McEwen, S. Novak, B. Mazumder, L.D. Bell, and F.S. Shahedipour-Sandvik, : Enhanced p-type conductivity in N-polar GaN photocathode structures and correlation with GaN hillock density (Conference Presentation) .In Proceedings of SPIE (March 13). (Vol. 10918, San Francisco, California, US, 2019).
64. M.R. Karim, B.H.D. Jayatunga, M. Zhu, R.A. Lalk, O. Licata, B. Mazumder, J. Hwang, K. Kash, andH. Zhao : Effects of cation stoichiometry on surface morphology and crystallinity of ZnGeN2 films grown on GaN by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. AIP Adv. 10, 065302 (2020).10.1063/1.5137767 ↗
65. E. Rocco, O. Licata, I. Mahaboob, K. Hogan, S. Tozier, V. Meyers, B. McEwen, S. Novak, B. Mazumder, M. Reshchikov, L.D. Bell, and F. Shahedipour-Sandvik : Hillock assisted p-type enhancement in N-polar GaN:Mg films grown by MOCVD. Sci. Rep. 10, 1426 (2020).10.1038/s41598-020-58275-1 ↗
66. B. Mazumder, A. Vella, and B.J.U. Déconihout: Evaporation mechanisms of MgO in laser assisted atom probe tomography. Ultramicroscopy 111, 571–575 (2011).10.1016/j.ultramic.2010.11.017 ↗
67. N. Dawahre, G. Shen, S. Balci, W. Baughman, D.S. Wilbert, N. Harris, L. Butler, R. Martens, S.M. Kim, andP. Kung : Atom probe tomography of zinc oxide nanowires. J. Electron. Mater. 41, 801–808 (2012).10.1007/s11664-011-1803-x ↗
68. B. Mazumder, S.W. Kaun, J. Lu, S. Keller, U.K. Mishra, and J.S.J.A.P.L. Speck: Atom probe analysis of AlN interlayers in AlGaN/AlN/GaN heterostructures. Appl. Phys. Lett. 102, 111603 (2013).10.1063/1.4798249 ↗
69. L. Mancini, N. Amirifar, D. Shinde, I. Blum, M. Gilbert, A. Vella, F. Vurpillot, W. Lefebvre, R. Lardé, E. Talbot, P. Pareige, X. Portier, A. Ziani, C. Davesnne, C. Durand, J. Eymery, R. Butté, J.F. Carlin, N. Grandjean, andL. Rigutti : Composition of wide bandgap semiconductor materials and nanostructures measured by atom probe tomography and its dependence on the surface electric field. J. Phys. Chem. C 118, 24136–24151 (2014).10.1021/jp5071264 ↗
70. S. Madireddy, D.W. Chung, T. Loeffler, S.K.R.S. Sankaranarayanan, D.N. Seidman, P. Balaprakash, and O. Heinonen : Phase segmentation in atom-probe tomography using deep learning-based edge detection. Sci. Rep. 9, 1–10 (2019).10.1038/s41598-019-56649-8 ↗
71. S.R. Broderick, A. Bryden, S.K. Suram, and K. Rajan: Data mining for isotope discrimination in atom probe tomography. Ultramicroscopy 132, 121–128 (2013).10.1016/j.ultramic.2013.02.001 ↗
72. Y. Wei, B. Gault, R.S. Varanasi, D. Raabe, M. Herbig, and A.J. Breen: Machine-learning-based atom probe crystallographic analysis. Ultramicroscopy 194, 15–24 (2018).10.1016/j.ultramic.2018.06.017 ↗
73. A. Mukherjee, S. Broderick, and K. Rajan: Modularity optimization for enhancing edge detection in microstructural features using 3D atomic chemical scale imaging. J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A 38, 033207 (2020).10.1116/1.5143017 ↗
74. R.A.D. Mackenzie, A. Cerezo, and G.D.W. Smith: Characterization of nanometer-scale compositional variations using field ion microscopy and the position sensitive atom probe. Nanostruct. Mater. 3, 203–210 (1993).10.1016/0965-9773(93)90080-U ↗
75. D.J. Larson, P.P. Camus, J.L. Vargas, T.F. Kelly, and M.K. Miller: Specimen preparation and atom probe field ion microscopy of BSCCO-2212 superconductors. J. Phys. IV 06, C5-271–C5-276 (1996).
76. T. Philippe, F.D. Geuser, S. Duguay, W. Lefebvre, O. Cojocaru-Mirédin, G.D. Costa, andD. Blavette : Clustering and nearest neighbour distances in atom-probe tomography. Ultramicroscopy 109, 1304–1309 (2009).10.1016/j.ultramic.2009.06.007 ↗
77. B. Gault, D. Haley, F. de Geuser, M.P. Moody, E.A. Marquis, D.J. Larson, andB.P. Geiser : Advances in the reconstruction of atom probe tomography data. Ultramicroscopy 111, 448–457 (2011).10.1016/j.ultramic.2010.11.016 ↗
78. T.T. Tsong: Atom-Probe Field Ion Microscopy: Field Ion Emission, and Surfaces and Interfaces at Atomic Resolution (Cambridge University Press, New York, US, 2005).
79. K. Thompson, D. Lawrence, D. Larson, J. Olson, T. Kelly, and B.J.U. Gorman: In situ site-specific specimen preparation for atom probe tomography. Ultramicroscopy 107, 131–139 (2007).10.1016/j.ultramic.2006.06.008 ↗
80. T.F. Kelly and D.J. Larson: Atom probe tomography 2012. Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 42, 1–31 (2012).10.1146/annurev-matsci-070511-155007 ↗
81. K.E. Yoon, D.N. Seidman, C. Antoine, and P. Bauer: Atomic-scale chemical analyses of niobium oxide/niobium interfaces via atom-probe tomography. Appl. Phys. Lett. 93, 132502 (2008).10.1063/1.2987483 ↗
82. R. Rachbauer, S. Massl, E. Stergar, P. Felfer, and P.H. Mayrhofer: Atom probe specimen preparation and 3D interfacial study of Ti–Al–N thin films. Surf. Coat. Technol. 204, 1811–1816 (2010).10.1016/j.surfcoat.2009.11.020 ↗
83. D. Larson, A. Petford-Long, A. Cerezo, G. Smith, D. Foord, and T.J.A.p.l. Anthony: Three-dimensional atom probe field-ion microscopy observation of Cu/Co multilayer film structures. Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 1125–1127 (1998).10.1063/1.122104 ↗
84. D.J. Larson, A. Cerezo, J. Juraszek, K. Hono, and G.J.M.b. Schmitz: Atom-probe tomographic studies of thin films and multilayers. MRS Bull. 34, 732–737 (2009).10.1557/mrs2009.247 ↗
85. T.F. Kelly, and D.J. Larson : Atom probe tomography. Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 42, 1–31 (2012).10.1146/annurev-matsci-070511-155007 ↗
86. Z. Peng, F. Vurpillot, P.-P. Choi, Y. Li, D. Raabe, and B. Gault: On the detection of multiple events in atom probe tomography. Ultramicroscopy 189, 54–60 (2018).10.1016/j.ultramic.2018.03.018 ↗
87. B. Mazumder, J. Sarker, Y. Zhang, J.M. Johnson, M. Zhu, S. Rajan, andJ. Hwang : Atomic scale investigation of chemical heterogeneity in β-(AlxGa1−x)2O3 films using atom probe tomography. Appl. Phys. Lett. 115, 132105 (2019).10.1063/1.5113627 ↗
88. J. Sarker, Y. Zhang, M. Zhu, S. Rajan, J. Hwang, and B. Mazumder: Understanding the growth mechanism of β-(AlxGa1−x)2O3 by atom probe tomography. Microsc. Microanal. 25, 2508–2509 (2019).10.1017/S1431927619013278 ↗
89. B. Gault, M.P. Moody, J.M. Cairney, and S.P. Ringer: Atom Probe Microscopy (Springer Science & Business Media, New York, US, 2012).10.1007/978-1-4614-3436-8 ↗
90. T. Frolov, M. Asta, and Y.J.P.R.B. Mishin: Segregation-induced phase transformations in grain boundaries. Phys. Rev. B 92, 020103 (2015).10.1103/PhysRevB.92.020103 ↗
91. C. Kumara, A.R. Balachandramurthi, S. Goel, F. Hanning, and J. Moverare: Toward a better understanding of phase transformations in additive manufacturing of alloy 718. Materialia 13, 100862 (2020).10.1016/j.mtla.2020.100862 ↗
92. W. Guo, D.A. Garfinkel, J.D. Tucker, D. Haley, G.A. Young, and J.D. Poplawsky: An atom probe perspective on phase separation and precipitation in duplex stainless steels. Nanotechnology 27, 254004 (2016).10.1088/0957-4484/27/25/254004 ↗
93. A. Shariq and N. Mattern: A study of phase separated Ni66Nb17Y17 metallic glass using atom probe tomography. Ultramicroscopy 111, 1370–1374 (2011).10.1016/j.ultramic.2011.05.005 ↗
94. A. Devaraj, M. Gu, R. Colby, P. Yan, C.M. Wang, J.M. Zheng, J. Xiao, A. Genc, J.G. Zhang, I. Belharouak, D. Wang, K. Amine, and S. Thevuthasan : Visualizing nanoscale 3D compositional fluctuation of lithium in advanced lithium-ion battery cathodes. Nat. Commun. 6, 8014 (2015).10.1038/ncomms9014 ↗
95. P. Vogt, A. Mauze, F. Wu, B. Bonef, and J.S. Speck: Metal-oxide catalyzed epitaxy (MOCATAXY): The example of the O plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy of β-(AlxGa1− x)2O3/β-Ga2O3 heterostructures. Appl. Phys. Express 11, 115503 (2018).10.7567/APEX.11.115503 ↗
96. J. Li, X. Chen, T. Ma, X. Cui, F.F. Ren, S. Gu, R. Zhang, Y. Zheng, S.P. Ringer, L. Fu, H.H. Tan, C. Jagadish, andJ. Ye : Identification and modulation of electronic band structures of single-phase beta-(AlxGa1-x)2O3 alloys grown by laser molecular beam epitaxy. Appl. Phys. Lett. 113, 041901 (2018).10.1063/1.5027763 ↗
97. Z. Peng, Y. Lu, C. Hatzoglou, and A.K. da Silva : An automated computational approach for complete in-plane compositional interface analysis by atom probe tomography. Microsc. Microanal. 25, 389–400 (2019).10.1017/S1431927618016112 ↗
98. E. Mejía-Uriarte, R. Sato-Berru, M. Navarrete, O. Kolokoltsev, and J.M. Saniger: Determination of phase transition by principal component analysis applied to Raman spectra of polycristalline BATIO3 at low and high temperature. J. Appl. Res. Technol. 10, 57–62 (2012).10.22201/icat.16656423.2012.10.1.421 ↗
99. J.S. Harris, J.N. Baker, B.E. Gaddy, I. Bryan, Z. Bryan, K.J. Mirrielees, P. Reddy, R. Collazo, Z. Sitar, and D.L. Irving : On compensation in Si-doped AlN. Appl. Phys. Lett. 112, 152101 (2018).10.1063/1.5022794 ↗
100. C. Park and D.J.P.R.B. Chadi: Stability of deep donor and acceptor centers in GaN, AlN, and BN. Phys. Rev. B 55, 12995 (1997).10.1103/PhysRevB.55.12995 ↗