Influence of Treated Surface Proportion on the Antibacterial Performance of UV-Activated Hydroxyapatite–Magnesium Phosphate–Zinc Oxide Coating on Magnesium Alloys
Source abstract
Abstract
Surface damage occurring during surgery can compromise coating integrity, leaving exposed areas susceptible to bacterial colonization. However, the impact of partial coating loss on antibacterial performance has not yet been investigated. In this work, a multifunctional UV-activated coating composed of hydroxyapatite, magnesium phosphate, and zinc oxide (HMZ) was developed and electrodeposited onto AZ31 and MgCa magnesium alloys. Its antibacterial efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was evaluated under three conditions: adhered bacteria, planktonic cells, and biofilm. In the absence of UV activation, coated surfaces exhibited no significant antibacterial activity. In contrast, fully coated and UV-activated surfaces achieved bacterial reductions above 98% in all scenarios. Surfaces with 60% coverage showed antibacterial efficacy equivalent to that of fully coated surfaces, even against established biofilm. Surfaces with 30% coverage also exhibited moderate activity, particularly against adhered and planktonic bacteria. These results demonstrate that full surface coverage is not required to preserve the coating’s antibacterial effectiveness. This strategy provides a clinically relevant solution to maintain antibacterial protection even when coating integrity is compromised.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Magnesium Alloys: Properties and Applications · Bone Tissue Engineering Materials · Magnesium Oxide Properties and Applications
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Center for Biomedical Research Networking: Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), 06006 Badajoz, Spain
Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Sciences, University of Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
University Campus of Badajoz, University Institute for Biosanitary Research of Extremadura (INUBE), 06006 Badajoz, Spain
Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering and Industrial Design, Polytechnic University of Madrid (UPM), 28012 Madrid, Spain
Department of Surface Engineering, Corrosion and Durability, National Center for Metallurgical Research (CENIM-CSIC), 28040 Madrid, Spain
Department of Medical-Surgical Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Extremadura, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
Orthopaedic Surgery and Traumatology Department, University Hospital Complex of Badajoz, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
Funding
Junta de Extremadura and FEDER · Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities and the State Research Agency
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Bone biomaterials and interactions with stem cells10.1038/boneres.2017.59 ↗
2. Major histocompatibility mismatch and donor choice for second allogeneic bone marrow transplantation10.1016/j.bbmt.2017.07.014 ↗
3. Topological design and additive manufacturing of porous metals for bone scaffolds and orthopaedic implants: A review10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.01.012 ↗
4. Response of articular cartilage and subchondral bone to internal fixation devices made of poly-l-lactide: A histomorphometric and microradiographic study on rabbits10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00123-X ↗
5. Antibacterial effect of novel biodegradable and bioresorbable PLDA/Mg composites10.1088/1748-605X/aa5a14 ↗
6. Biodegradable magnesium alloys as temporary orthopaedic implants: A review10.1007/s10534-019-00170-y ↗
7. Biodegradable metals10.1016/j.mser.2014.01.001 ↗
8. Fabrication and characterization of magnesium–fluorapatite nanocomposite for biomedical applications10.1016/j.matchar.2010.09.008 ↗
9. Biodegradable magnesium alloys: A review of material development and applications10.4028/www.scientific.net/JBBTE.12.25 ↗
10. Magnesium and its alloys as orthopedic biomaterials: A review10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.10.003 ↗
11. Biodegradable metallic bone implants10.1039/C8QM00507A ↗
12. Research on an Mg–Zn alloy as a degradable biomaterial10.1016/j.actbio.2009.06.028 ↗
13. Biodegradable magnesium alloys developed as bone repair materials: A review10.1155/2018/9216314 ↗
14. Corrosion protection of biodegradable magnesium implants using anodization10.1016/j.msec.2010.08.019 ↗
15. Magnesium implant alloy with low levels of strontium and calcium: The third element effect and phase selection improve bio-corrosion resistance and mechanical performance10.1016/j.msec.2013.11.011 ↗
16. Biodegradable magnesium implants for orthopedic applications10.1007/s10853-012-6572-2 ↗
17. Enhanced mechanical properties, Corrosion resistance, cytocompatibility, osteogenesis, and antibacterial performance of biodegradable Mg–2Zn–0.5Ca–0.5Sr/Zr alloys for bone-implant application10.1002/adhm.202303975 ↗
18. Implant derived high local concentration of magnesium inhibits tumorigenicity of osteosarcoma10.1016/j.biomaterials.2025.123263 ↗
19. In vivo corrosion of four magnesium alloys and the associated bone response10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.09.049 ↗
20. System development, formability quality and microstructure evolution of selective laser-melted magnesium10.1080/17452759.2016.1210522 ↗
21. Proof stress measurement of die-cast magnesium alloys10.1016/j.matdes.2016.09.088 ↗
22. Improvement on corrosion resistance and biocompability of ZK60 magnesium alloy by carboxyl ion implantation10.1016/j.corsci.2020.108729 ↗
23. Temperature effect on elastic and fracture behaviour of lead-free piezoceramic BaTiO310.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2022.11.030 ↗
24. In vitro and in vivo biocompatibility and corrosion behaviour of a bioabsorbable magnesium alloy coated with octacalcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite10.1016/j.actbio.2014.09.026 ↗
25. Rates of in vivo (arterial) and in vitro biocorrosion for pure magnesium10.1002/jbm.a.35179 ↗
26. The role of magnesium in biomaterials related infections10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.110996 ↗
27. Bioactive coating on a new Mg-2Zn-0.5Nd alloy: Modulation of degradation rate and cellular response10.1080/10667857.2019.1574956 ↗
28. In vivo study of microarc oxidation coated Mg alloy as a substitute for bone defect repairing: Degradation behavior, mechanical properties, and bone response10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.05.052 ↗
29. Immunological response to biodegradable magnesium implants10.1007/s11837-014-0874-6 ↗
30. Control of biodegradation of biocompatable magnesium alloys10.1016/j.corsci.2007.01.001 ↗
31. Biomechanical testing and degradation analysis of MgCa0.8 alloy screws: A comparative in vivo study in rabbits10.1016/j.actbio.2010.10.031 ↗
32. Biocompatibility of bio-Mg-Zn alloy within bone with heart, liver, kidney and spleen10.1007/s11434-009-0080-z ↗
33. Negative vascular remodelling after implantation of bioabsorbable magnesium alloy stents in porcine coronary arteries: A randomised comparison with bare-metal and sirolimus-eluting stents10.1136/hrt.2007.139261 ↗
34. Preliminary study of biodegradation of AZ31B magnesium alloy10.1007/s11706-007-0073-2 ↗
35. Optical coherence tomography and intravascular ultrasound imaging of bioabsorbable magnesium stent degradation in porcine coronary arteries10.1016/j.carrev.2008.04.001 ↗
36. Safety and efficacy of bioabsorbable magnesium alloy stents in porcine coronary arteries
37. Efficacy and safety of absorbable metallic stents with adjunct intracoronary beta radiation in porcine coronary arteries10.1111/j.1540-8183.2007.00272.x ↗
38. In vivo corrosion and corrosion protection of magnesium alloy LAE44210.1016/j.actbio.2009.10.012 ↗
39. Surface modification of magnesium alloys using thermal and solid-state cold spray processes: Challenges and latest progresses10.1016/j.jma.2022.07.012 ↗
40. Surface synthesization of magnesium alloys for improving corrosion resistance and implant applications10.1016/j.arabjc.2022.104465 ↗
41. Recent advancements in the design of micro/nanostructured superhydrophobic surfaces on magnesium alloys10.1016/j.jma.2025.01.013 ↗
42. A comprehensive overview in improving corrosion resistance of Mg alloys: Enhancing protective coatings with plasma electrolytic oxidation and superhydrophobic coatings10.1016/j.jma.2025.02.023 ↗
43. Smart gradient coating suitable for bone growth prepared on plasma-electrolytically oxidised Mg and its sequential degradation behaviour10.1016/j.jma.2024.05.026 ↗
44. Surface growth of novel MOFs on AZ31 Mg alloy coated via plasma electrolytic oxidation for enhanced corrosion protection and photocatalytic performance10.1016/j.jma.2024.05.016 ↗
45. Tamurejo-Alonso, P., González-Martín, M.L., and Pacha-Olivenza, M.Á. (2023). Electrodeposited Zinc Coatings for Biomedical Application: Morphology, Corrosion and Biological Behaviour. Materials, 16.10.3390/ma16175985 ↗
46. Micromorphological effect of calcium phosphate coating on compatibility of magnesium alloy with osteoblast10.1080/14686996.2016.1266238 ↗
47. Anti-corrosion and cytotoxicity properties of inorganic surface treatments on Mg1Ca biodegradable alloy10.1016/j.surfcoat.2024.131704 ↗
48. Corrosion behavior and biocompatibility of hydroxyapatite/magnesium phosphate/zinc phosphate composite coating deposited on AZ31 alloy10.1016/j.surfcoat.2017.07.066 ↗
49. Implant infections: Adhesion, biofilm formation and immune evasion10.1038/s41579-018-0019-y ↗
50. Biofilm-based implant infections in orthopaedics10.1007/978-3-319-11038-7_2 ↗
51. Scenery of Staphylococcus implant infections in orthopedics10.2217/fmb.11.117 ↗
52. Biofilm-Specific Antibiotic Resistance10.2217/fmb.12.76 ↗
53. Bactericidal effect of magnesium ions over planktonic and sessile Staphylococcus epidermidis and Escherichia coli10.1016/j.matchemphys.2018.09.050 ↗
54. Researching a highly anti-corrosion superhydrophobic film fabricated on AZ91D magnesium alloy and its anti-bacteria adhesion effect10.1016/j.matchar.2014.12.004 ↗
55. Fast corroding, thin magnesium coating displays antibacterial effects and low cytotoxicity10.1080/08927014.2017.1303832 ↗
56. Antibacterial characteristics of magnesium oxide powder10.1023/A:1008916209784 ↗
57. In vitro antibacterial properties of magnesium metal against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus☆10.1016/j.actbio.2009.10.007 ↗
58. Antibacterial activity of particulate Bioglass® against supra- and subgingival bacteria10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00330-6 ↗
59. Anti-biofilm properties of magnesium metal via alkaline pH10.1039/C5RA00027K ↗
60. Antimicrobial properties and dentin bonding strength of magnesium phosphate cements10.1016/j.actbio.2013.05.032 ↗
61. Influence of the microstructure and silver content on degradation, cytocompatibility, and antibacterial properties of magnesium-silver alloys in vitro10.1155/2017/8091265 ↗
62. Antibacterial biodegradable Mg-Ag alloys10.22203/eCM.v025a20 ↗
63. Antimicrobial properties of ZnO nanomaterials: A review10.1016/j.ceramint.2016.12.062 ↗
64. Comprehensive study of ZnO films prepared by filtered cathodic vacuum arc at room temperature10.1063/1.1592007 ↗
65. In vivo bactericidal efficacy of the Ti6Al4V surface after ultraviolet C treatment10.1007/s10195-016-0407-x ↗
66. Bactericidal behaviour of Ti6Al4V surfaces after exposure to UV-C light10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.03.005 ↗
67. Antimicrobial activity of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticle against Klebsiella pneumoniae10.3109/13880209.2014.893001 ↗
68. The properties of ZnO nanofluids and the role of H2O2 in the disinfection activity against Escherichia coli10.1016/j.watres.2012.10.054 ↗
69. Investigation into the antibacterial behaviour of suspensions of ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO nanofluids)10.1007/s11051-006-9150-1 ↗
70. The contribution of zinc ions to the antimicrobial activity of zinc oxide10.1016/j.colsurfa.2014.05.057 ↗
71. Antifungal activity of ZnO nanoparticles-the role of ROS mediated cell injury10.1088/0957-4484/22/10/105101 ↗
72. Effect of surface modification and UVA photoactivation on antibacterial bioactivity of zinc oxide powder10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.11.152 ↗
73. Hydrogen peroxide as an antibacterial factor in zinc oxide powder slurry10.1016/S0922-338X(98)80165-7 ↗
74. ZnO nanofluids: Green synthesis, characterization, and antibacterial activity10.1016/j.matchemphys.2010.01.020 ↗
75. Antimicrobial activity of ZnO nanoplates and its Ag nanocomposites: Insight into an ROS-mediated antibacterial mechanism under UV light10.1016/j.jssc.2018.08.003 ↗
76. In vitro degradation behavior, antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity of TiO2-MAO/ZnHA composite coating on Mg alloy for orthopedic implants10.1016/j.surfcoat.2017.11.027 ↗
77. Photoinduced oxygen release and persistent photoconductivity in ZnO nanowires10.1186/1556-276X-6-404 ↗
78. UV-irradiation induced biological activity and antibacterial activity of ZnO coated magnesium alloy10.1016/j.msec.2020.110997 ↗
79. Mechanical insertion properties of calcium-phosphate implant coatings10.1111/j.1600-0501.2010.01916.x ↗
80. Marenzi, G., Impero, F., Scherillo, F., Sammartino, J.C., Squillace, A., and Spagnuolo, G. (2019). Effect of different surface treatments on titanium dental implant micro-morphology. Materials, 12.10.3390/ma12050733 ↗
81. The effect of surface macrotexture and hydroxylapatite coating on the mechanical strengths and histologic profiles of titanium implant materials10.1002/jbm.820211205 ↗
82. Investigation of the mechanical and degradation properties of Mg-Sr and Mg-Zn-Sr alloys for use as potential biodegradable implant materials10.1016/j.jmbbm.2011.07.018 ↗
83. In vitro evaluation of titanium exfoliation during simulated surgical insertion of dental implants10.4103/jpbs.jpbs_856_24 ↗
84. Combined application of silica particles and zirconium hydrogen phosphate coating to improve the friction resistance and osteogenic/anti-inflammatory properties of micro-arc oxidation-treated titanium10.1016/j.surfcoat.2022.129037 ↗
85. Coating of a biodegradable magnesium alloy for rapid action against S. aureus after ultraviolet exposition10.1016/j.apsusc.2022.156006 ↗
86. (2025, January 23). International Centre For Diffraction Data. Available online: https://www.icdd.com.
87. (2019). Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: ArealPart 600: Metrological characteristics for areal topography measuring methods (Standard No. ISO 25178-600:2019).
88. (1994). Rough Surfaces. Report EUR 15178 EN. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities (European Commission) (Standard No. EUR 15178N).
89. The zeta potential of extended dielectrics and conductors in terms of streaming potential and streaming current measurements10.1039/c2cp40743d ↗
90. Efficacy of laser shock processing of biodegradable Mg and Mg-1Zn alloy on their in vitro corrosion and bacterial response10.1016/j.surfcoat.2019.125320 ↗
91. Post oxidation in improving the Schottky-gate MgZnO/ZnO heterojunction field-effect transistors fabricated by RF sputtering10.1016/j.mseb.2021.115063 ↗
92. Development of anti-corrosive coating on AZ31 Mg alloy subjected to plasma electrolytic oxidation at sub-zero temperature10.1016/j.jma.2021.07.013 ↗
93. Morphological modification and corrosion response of MgO and Mg3(PO4)2 composite formed on magnesium alloy10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.107225 ↗
94. X-ray photoelectron and scanning Auger electron spectroscopy study of electrodeposited ZnCr coatings on steel10.1007/s00216-012-5788-y ↗
95. Calcium phosphate naturally formed on titanium in electrolyte solution10.1016/0142-9612(91)90028-9 ↗
96. (2024, December 12). X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) Reference Page. Available online: https://www.xpsfitting.com/2013/01/phosphorus.html.
97. XPS study of sulfur and phosphorus compounds with different oxidation states10.17576/jsm-2018-4708-33 ↗
98. Effect of growth temperature on structural, electrical and optical properties of dual ion beam sputtered ZnO thin films10.1007/s10854-013-1130-5 ↗
99. Physicochemical characterization of an Indian traditional medicine, Jasada Bhasma: Detection of nanoparticles containing non-stoichiometric zinc oxide10.1007/s11051-008-9414-z ↗
100. Landry, C., Morrison, A., Esmaeili, M., and Ghandi, K. (2022). Muon irradiation of ZnO rods: Superparamagnetic nature induced by defects. Nanomaterials, 12.10.3390/nano12020184 ↗