journal article·2025-04-21Open access

Flexible perovskite light-emitting diodes: recent progress, applications and challenges

Ying Li, Tingyi Gao, Ziquan He, Chenxi Shen, Siqian Zhou, Mingze Li, Daquan Zhang, Qianpeng Zhang, Yu Fu, Xiaoliang Mo, Zhaoyu Zhang, Wengang Bi, Zhiyong Fan

npj Flexible Electronics· Volume 9· Issue 1

Abstract

Significant progress has been made in perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) over the past decade, with external quantum efficiencies (EQEs) exceeding 30% for green and red emissions, and 20% for blue emissions. However, the performance and device area of flexible PeLEDs remains constrained due to issues such as crack formation and short circuits that occur during device deformation. These challenges limit their applicability in flexible, stretchable, and wearable displays and lighting solutions. This review systematically summarizes recent advancements in flexible PeLEDs, focusing on various strategies to improve their flexibility and performance. We first discuss the use of flexible substrates and electrodes in these devices. Next, we examine the fabrication methods and the mechanical and optoelectronic properties of different perovskite materials used in flexible PeLEDs, including three-dimensional (3D) thin films, low-dimensional nanomaterials, and perovskite/polymer composites. Finally, we highlight the extensive applications of flexible PeLEDs in wearable optoelectronics and provide an outlook on the future development of high-performance flexible PeLEDs to facilitate their commercialization.
Source: openalex_inverted_index · Quality: baseline

Research context

OpenAlex topics: Perovskite Materials and Applications · Organic Light-Emitting Diodes Research · Quantum Dots Synthesis And Properties

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

References (100+)

Show source-provided references
1. Jang, J. H., Li, S., Kim, D. H., Yang, J. & Choi, M. K. Materials, device structures, and applications of flexible perovskite light-emitting diodes. Adv. Electron. Mater. 9, 2201271 (2023).10.1002/aelm.202201271 ↗
2. Jia, P. et al. Recent advances in flexible perovskite light-emitting diodes. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 8, 2100441 (2021).10.1002/admi.202100441 ↗
3. Zhang, Y., Khan, S. A., Luo, D. & Li, G. Flexible perovskite light-emitting diodes for display applications and beyond. J. Semicond. 45, 051601 (2024).10.1088/1674-4926/45/5/051601 ↗
4. Choi, M. K., Yang, J., Hyeon, T. & Kim, D.-H. Flexible quantum dot light-emitting diodes for next-generation displays. npj Flex. Electron. 2, 10 (2018).10.1038/s41528-018-0023-3 ↗
5. Gustafsson, G. et al. Flexible light-emitting diodes made from soluble conducting polymers. Nature 357, 477–479 (1992).10.1038/357477a0 ↗
6. Chang, S. et al. Flexible and stretchable light-emitting diodes and photodetectors for human-centric optoelectronics. Chem. Rev. 124, 768–859 (2024).10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00548 ↗
7. Hua, Q. & Shen, G. Low-dimensional nanostructures for monolithic 3D-integrated flexible and stretchable electronics. Chem. Soc. Rev. 53, 1316–1353 (2024).10.1039/D3CS00918A ↗
8. Chwang, A. B., Hack, M. & Brown, J. J. Flexible OLED display development: strategy and status. J. Soc. Inf. Disp. 13, 481–486 (2005).10.1889/1.1973992 ↗
9. Liu, Y. F., Feng, J., Bi, Y. G., Yin, D. & Sun, H. B. Recent developments in flexible organic light-emitting devices. Adv. Mater. Technol. 4, 1800371 (2019).10.1002/admt.201800371 ↗
10. Bauri, J., Choudhary, R. B. & Mandal, G. Recent advances in efficient emissive materials-based OLED applications: a review. J. Mater. Sci. 56, 18837–18866 (2021).10.1007/s10853-021-06503-y ↗
11. Yadav, S., Mittal, P. & Negi, S. Recent advancements over a decade for organic light-emitting diodes: from structural diversity, role of layers, colour emission, material classification, performance improvement, fabrication to applications. Bull. Mater. Sci. 45, 109 (2022).10.1007/s12034-022-02680-x ↗
12. Huang, C.-Y. et al. Inorganic halide perovskite quantum dots: a versatile nanomaterial platform for electronic applications. Nanomicro Lett. 15, 16 (2022).
13. Liu, Z. et al. Micro-light-emitting diodes with quantum dots in display technology. Light. Sci. Appl. 9, 83 (2020).10.1038/s41377-020-0268-1 ↗
14. Guan, X. et al. Targeted elimination of tetravalent-Sn-induced defects for enhanced efficiency and stability in lead-free NIR-II perovskite LEDs. Nat. Commun. 15, 9913 (2024).10.1038/s41467-024-54160-x ↗
15. Luo, J. et al. Efficient and stable emission of warm-white light from lead-free halide double perovskites. Nature 563, 541–545 (2018).10.1038/s41586-018-0691-0 ↗
16. Li, M. et al. Acceleration of radiative recombination for efficient perovskite LEDs. Nature 630, 631–635 (2024).10.1038/s41586-024-07460-7 ↗
17. Kong, L. et al. Fabrication of red-emitting perovskite LEDs by stabilizing their octahedral structure. Nature 631, 73–79 (2024).10.1038/s41586-024-07531-9 ↗
18. Meloni, S., Palermo, G., Ashari-Astani, N., Grätzel, M. & Rothlisberger, U. Valence and conduction band tuning in halide perovskites for solar cell applications. J. Mater. Chem. A 4, 15997–16002 (2016).10.1039/C6TA04949D ↗
19. Kim, Y.-H., Cho, H. & Lee, T.-W. Metal halide perovskite light emitters. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 113, 11694–11702 (2016).10.1073/pnas.1607471113 ↗
20. Sun, S. Q. et al. Enhancing light outcoupling efficiency via anisotropic low refractive index electron transporting materials for efficient perovskite light-emitting diodes. Adv. Mater. 36, 2400421 (2024).10.1002/adma.202400421 ↗
21. Xiong, W. et al. Controllable p- and n-type behaviours in emissive perovskite semiconductors. Nature 633, 344–350 (2024).10.1038/s41586-024-07792-4 ↗
22. Chen, Z. et al. Roadmap on Perovskite light-emitting diodes. J. Phys. Photonics http://arxiv.org/abs/2311.11232 (2024).
23. Kim, J. S. et al. Ultra-bright, efficient and stable perovskite light-emitting diodes. Nature 611, 688–694 (2022).10.1038/s41586-022-05304-w ↗
24. Feng, S.-C. et al. Efficient and stable red perovskite light-emitting diodes via thermodynamic crystallization control. Adv. Mater. 36, 2410255 (2024).10.1002/adma.202410255 ↗
25. Gao, Y. et al. Highly efficient blue light-emitting diodes based on mixed-halide perovskites with reduced chlorine defects. Sci. Adv. 10, eado5645 (2024).10.1126/sciadv.ado5645 ↗
26. Luo, J. et al. Vapour-deposited perovskite light-emitting diodes. Nat. Rev. Mater. 9, 282–294 (2024).10.1038/s41578-024-00651-8 ↗
27. Min, H. et al. Spin coating epitaxial heterodimensional tin perovskites for light-emitting diodes. Nat. Nanotechnol. 19, 632–637 (2024).10.1038/s41565-023-01588-9 ↗
28. Liu, H. et al. Advances and challenges in large-area perovskite light-emitting diodes. Adv. Mater. n/a, 2410154 (2024).10.1002/adma.202410154 ↗
29. Shen, Y. et al. Rational interface engineering for efficient flexible perovskite light-emitting diodes. ACS Nano 14, 6107–6116 (2020).10.1021/acsnano.0c01908 ↗
30. Zhu, P. et al. Toward the commercialization of perovskite solar modules. Adv. Mater. 36, 2307357 (2024).10.1002/adma.202307357 ↗
31. Root, S. E., Savagatrup, S., Printz, A. D., Rodriquez, D. & Lipomi, D. J. Mechanical properties of organic semiconductors for stretchable, highly flexible, and mechanically robust electronics. Chem. Rev. 117, 6467–6499 (2017).10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00003 ↗
32. Dunaevskiy, M. et al. Young’s modulus of wurtzite and zinc blende InP nanowires. Nano Lett. 17, 3441–3446 (2017).10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b00312 ↗
33. Kucheyev, S. et al. Deformation behavior of ion-beam-modified GaN. Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 156–158 (2001).10.1063/1.1335552 ↗
34. Grillo, S., Ducarroir, M., Nadal, M., Tournie, E. & Faurie, J. Nanoindentation of Si, GaP, GaAs and ZnSe single crystals. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 36, L5 (2002).10.1088/0022-3727/36/1/102 ↗
35. Ott, C. et al. Flexible and ultrasoft inorganic 1D semiconductor and heterostructure systems based on SnIP. Adv. Funct. Mater. 29, 1900233 (2019).10.1002/adfm.201900233 ↗
36. Zhang, Z. et al. High-brightness all-polymer stretchable LED with charge-trapping dilution. Nature 603, 624–630 (2022).10.1038/s41586-022-04400-1 ↗
37. Torres, J. M., Bakken, N., Stafford, C. M., Li, J. & Vogt, B. D. Thickness dependence of the elastic modulus of tris (8-hydroxyquinolinato) aluminium. Soft Matter 6, 5783–5788 (2010).10.1039/c0sm00364f ↗
38. Pinto, E. et al. Transparent composites prepared from bacterial cellulose and castor oil based polyurethane as substrates for flexible OLEDs. J. Mater. Chem. C. 3, 11581–11588 (2015).10.1039/C5TC02359A ↗
39. Bideau, B., Loranger, E. & Daneault, C. Comparison of three polypyrrole-cellulose nanocomposites synthesis. J. Adv. Nanomater.1, 10.22606 (2016).10.22606/jan.2016.12007 ↗
40. Fagbohungbe, K. H., Callaway, C. P. & Risko, C. Temperature-dependent stress–strain behavior of amorphous and crystalline P3HT. J. Mater. Chem. C. 12, 19103–19115 (2024).10.1039/D4TC03618B ↗
41. Tu, Q. et al. Exploring the factors affecting the mechanical properties of 2D hybrid organic–inorganic perovskites. ACS Appl. Mater. interfaces 12, 20440–20447 (2020).10.1021/acsami.0c02313 ↗
42. Sun, S. et al. Factors influencing the mechanical properties of formamidinium lead halides and related hybrid perovskites. ChemSusChem 10, 3740–3745 (2017).10.1002/cssc.201700991 ↗
43. Sun, S., Fang, Y., Kieslich, G., White, T. J. & Cheetham, A. K. Mechanical properties of organic–inorganic halide perovskites, CH 3 NH 3 PbX 3 (X= I, Br and Cl), by nanoindentation. J. Mater. Chem. A 3, 18450–18455 (2015).10.1039/C5TA03331D ↗
44. Roy, D. et al. Why does the photoluminescence efficiency depend on excitation energy in case of a quantum dot? A case study of CdSe-based core/alloy shell/shell quantum dots employing ultrafast pump–probe spectroscopy and single particle spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. C. 123, 6922–6933 (2019).10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b00422 ↗
45. Needell, D. R. et al. Spectrally matched quantum dot photoluminescence in GaAs-Si tandem luminescent solar concentrators. IEEE J. Photovolt. 9, 397–401 (2019).10.1109/JPHOTOV.2019.2892075 ↗
46. Shen, J. et al. Exceeding 67.35% efficient and color temperature tunable white light from carbon dots with quadruple-channel fluorescence–phosphorescence emission. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 10, 15599–15607 (2022).10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c05268 ↗
47. Zhu, W. et al. A dual strategy to prepare CsPbBr3@ glass with a high PLQY and ultrastability: combining controllable crystallization and surface modification. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2408760 (2024).10.1002/adfm.202408760 ↗
48. Das, S. & Samanta, A. Highly luminescent and phase-stable red/NIR-emitting all-inorganic and hybrid perovskite nanocrystals. ACS Energy Lett. 6, 3780–3787 (2021).10.1021/acsenergylett.1c01959 ↗
49. Wei, J.-H., Wang, X.-D., Liao, J.-F. & Kuang, D.-B. High photoluminescence quantum yield (> 95%) of MAPbBr3 nanocrystals via reprecipitation from methylamine-MAPbBr3 liquid. ACS Appl. Electron. Mater. 2, 2707–2715 (2020).10.1021/acsaelm.0c00327 ↗
50. Chen, S.-W. et al. Versatile deep blue fluorescent materials based on the hybridization of phenanthroimidazole and fluorene derivatives. Dyes Pigm.222, 111829 (2024).10.1016/j.dyepig.2023.111829 ↗
51. Zhang, K., Zhu, N., Zhang, M., Wang, L. & Xing, J. Opportunities and challenges in perovskite LED commercialization. J. Mater. Chem. C. 9, 3795–3799 (2021).10.1039/D1TC00232E ↗
52. Liguori, R., Nunziata, F., Aprano, S. & Maglione, M. G. Overcoming challenges in OLED technology for lighting solutions. Electronics 13, 1299 (2024).10.3390/electronics13071299 ↗
53. Meneghini, M., Trevisanello, L. R., Meneghesso, G. & Zanoni, E. A review on the reliability of GaN-based LEDs. IEEE Trans. Device Mater. Reliab. 8, 323–331 (2008).10.1109/TDMR.2008.921527 ↗
54. Chen, D. et al. Ultralow trap density FAPbBr3 perovskite films for efficient light-emitting diodes and amplified spontaneous emission. Nat. Commun. 16, 2367 (2025).10.1038/s41467-025-56557-8 ↗
55. Qin, F. et al. Highly efficient and flexible perovskite nanocrystal light-emitting diodes on disposable paper substrates. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 15, 47278–47285 (2023).10.1021/acsami.3c10070 ↗
56. Zhao, J. et al. High-speed fabrication of all-inkjet-printed organometallic halide perovskite light-emitting diodes on elastic substrates. Adv. Mater. 33, 2102095 (2021).10.1002/adma.202102095 ↗
57. Zhang, Q. et al. Organic–inorganic hybrid perovskite quantum dot light-emitting diodes using a graphene electrode and modified PEDOT:PSS. RSC Adv. 9, 20931–20940 (2019).10.1039/C9RA02730K ↗
58. Lu, M. et al. Highly flexible CsPbI3 perovskite nanocrystal light-emitting diodes. ChemNanoMat 5, 313–317 (2019).10.1002/cnma.201800359 ↗
59. Li, Y.-F. et al. Stretchable organometal-halide-perovskite quantum-dot light-emitting diodes. Adv. Mater. 31, 1807516 (2019).10.1002/adma.201807516 ↗
60. Zhao, F. et al. Highly flexible organometal halide perovskite quantum dot based light-emitting diodes on a silver nanowire–polymer composite electrode. J. Mater. Chem. C. 5, 531–538 (2017).10.1039/C6TC04934F ↗
61. Cao, F. et al. Mixed-dimensional mxene-based composite electrodes enable mechanically stable and efficient flexible perovskite light-emitting diodes. Nano Lett. 22, 4246–4252 (2022).10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c01517 ↗
62. Seo, H.-K. et al. Efficient flexible organic/inorganic hybrid perovskite light-emitting diodes based on graphene anode. Adv. Mater. 29, 1605587 (2017).10.1002/adma.201605587 ↗
63. Park, J. K., Kim, S. Y., Kim, J. H., Heo, J. H. & Im, S. H. Spray-coated nanocrystalline CsPbBr3 perovskite thin-films for large area and efficient rigid and flexible light emitting diodes. J. Alloy. Compd. 918, 165560 (2022).10.1016/j.jallcom.2022.165560 ↗
64. Hamanaka, V. N., Salsberg, E., Fonseca, F. J. & Aziz, H. Investigating the influence of the solution-processing method on the morphological properties of organic semiconductor films and their impact on OLED performance and lifetime. Org. Electron. 78, 105509 (2020).10.1016/j.orgel.2019.105509 ↗
65. Chu, S. et al. Large-area and efficient perovskite light-emitting diodes via low-temperature blade-coating. Nat. Commun. 12, 147 (2021).10.1038/s41467-020-20433-4 ↗
66. Jin, F. et al. Morphology control towards bright and stable inorganic halide perovskite light-emitting diodes. J. Mater. Chem. C. 6, 1573–1578 (2018).10.1039/C7TC04631F ↗
67. Jung, D. H. et al. Flash-induced ultrafast recrystallization of perovskite for flexible light-emitting diodes. Nano Energy 61, 236–244 (2019).10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.04.061 ↗
68. Liu, H. et al. Large-area flexible perovskite light-emitting diodes enabled by inkjet printing. Adv. Mater. 36, 2309921 (2024).10.1002/adma.202309921 ↗
69. Chen, C. et al. Efficient flexible inorganic perovskite light-emitting diodes fabricated with CsPbBr3 emitters prepared via low-temperature in situ dynamic thermal crystallization. Nano Lett. 20, 4673–4680 (2020).10.1021/acs.nanolett.0c01550 ↗
70. Lu, J. et al. Dendritic CsSnI3 for efficient and flexible near-infrared perovskite light-emitting diodes. Adv. Mater. 33, 2104414 (2021).10.1002/adma.202104414 ↗
71. Zhou, C. et al. Low dimensional metal halide perovskites and hybrids. Mater. Sci. Eng.: R Rep. 137, 38–65 (2019).10.1016/j.mser.2018.12.001 ↗
72. Zhu, L., Liu, D., Wang, J. & Wang, N. Large organic cations in quasi-2D perovskites for high-performance light-emitting diodes. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 11, 8502–8510 (2020).10.1021/acs.jpclett.0c02476 ↗
73. Gupta, Y., Rathore, S., Singh, A. & Kumar, A. Tailoring the mechanical response of Ruddlesden Popper lead halide perovskites. J. Alloy. Compd. 901, 163575 (2022).10.1016/j.jallcom.2021.163575 ↗
74. Rathore, S., Leong, W. L. & Singh, A. Mechanical properties estimation of 2D–3D mixed organic-inorganic perovskites based on methylammonium and phenylethyl-ammonium system using a combined experimental and first-principles approach. J. Alloy. Compd. 936, 168328 (2023).10.1016/j.jallcom.2022.168328 ↗
75. Tu, Q. et al. Stretching and breaking of ultrathin 2D hybrid organic–inorganic perovskites. ACS Nano 12, 10347–10354 (2018).10.1021/acsnano.8b05623 ↗
76. Zhang, L. et al. High-performance quasi-2D perovskite light-emitting diodes: from materials to devices. Light Sci. Appl. 10, 61 (2021).10.1038/s41377-021-00501-0 ↗
77. Zhao, L. et al. Influence of bulky organo-ammonium halide additive choice on the flexibility and efficiency of perovskite light-emitting devices. Adv. Funct. Mater. 28, 1802060 (2018).10.1002/adfm.201802060 ↗
78. Sun, C. et al. High-performance large-area quasi-2D perovskite light-emitting diodes. Nat. Commun. 12, 2207 (2021).10.1038/s41467-021-22529-x ↗
79. Wang, J. et al. Inkjet-printed full-color matrix quasi-two-dimensional perovskite light-emitting diodes. ACS Appl. Mater. interfaces 13, 41773–41781 (2021).10.1021/acsami.1c07526 ↗
80. Chirvony, V. S. et al. Achieving inkjet-printed 2D tin iodide perovskites: excitonic and electro-optical properties. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2405154 (2024).10.1002/adfm.202405154 ↗
81. Vescio, G. et al. 2D PEA2SnI4 inkjet-printed halide perovskite LEDs on rigid and flexible substrates. ACS Energy Lett. 7, 3653–3655 (2022).10.1021/acsenergylett.2c01773 ↗
82. Bi, W. et al. Efficient quasi-two-dimensional perovskite light-emitting diodes with improved multiple quantum well structure. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12, 1721–1727 (2020).10.1021/acsami.9b10186 ↗
83. Sun, Y. et al. The formation of perovskite multiple quantum well structures for high performance light-emitting diodes. npj Flex. Electron. 2, 12 (2018).10.1038/s41528-018-0026-0 ↗
84. Rui, H. et al. Tunable deep-red electroluminescence from flexible quasi-2D perovskites light-emitting diodes. IEEE Electron Device Lett. 40, 59–62 (2019).10.1109/LED.2018.2883510 ↗
85. Cheng, L. P. et al. Efficient CsPbBr3 perovskite light-emitting diodes enabled by synergetic morphology control. Adv. Opt. Mater. 7, 1801534 (2019).10.1002/adom.201801534 ↗
86. Zhang, D. et al. Metal halide perovskite nanowires: synthesis, integration, properties, and applications in optoelectronics. Adv. Energy Mater. 13, 2201735 (2023).10.1002/aenm.202201735 ↗
87. Aftab, S. et al. Lighting the future: perovskite nanorods and their advances across applications. Nano Energy 124, 109504 (2024).10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109504 ↗
88. Lin, C.-H. et al. Giant optical anisotropy of perovskite nanowire array films. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30, 1909275 (2020).10.1002/adfm.201909275 ↗
89. Gu, L. et al. A biomimetic eye with a hemispherical perovskite nanowire array retina. Nature 581, 278–282 (2020).10.1038/s41586-020-2285-x ↗
90. Ma, S. et al. Ultra-sensitive and stable multiplexed biosensors array in fully printed and integrated platforms for reliable perspiration analysis. Adv. Mater. 36, 2311106 (2024).10.1002/adma.202311106 ↗
91. Yuan, Z. et al. One-dimensional organic lead halide perovskites with efficient bluish white-light emission. Nat. Commun. 8, 14051 (2017).10.1038/ncomms14051 ↗
92. Jang, J. H., Li, S., Kim, D.-H., Yang, J. & Choi, M. K. Materials, device structures, and applications of flexible perovskite light-emitting diodes. Adv. Electron. Mater. 9, 2201271 (2023).10.1002/aelm.202201271 ↗
93. Bi, C. et al. Self-assembled perovskite nanowire clusters for high luminance red light-emitting diodes. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30, 2005990 (2020).10.1002/adfm.202005990 ↗
94. Zhang, Q. et al. Three-dimensional perovskite nanophotonic wire array-based light-emitting diodes with significantly improved efficiency and stability. ACS Nano 14, 1577–1585 (2020).10.1021/acsnano.9b06663 ↗
95. Zhang, D. et al. Large-scale planar and spherical light-emitting diodes based on arrays of perovskite quantum wires. Nat. Photonics 16, 284–290 (2022).10.1038/s41566-022-00978-0 ↗
96. Cao, Y. B. et al. High-efficiency, flexible and large-area red/green/blue all-inorganic metal halide perovskite quantum wires-based light-emitting diodes. Nat. Commun. 14, 4611 (2023).10.1038/s41467-023-40150-y ↗
97. Lê, K. et al. Electrospun Electroluminescent CsPbBr3 Fibers as Flexible Perovskite Networks for Light-Emitting Application. Adv. Eng. Mater. 25, 2201651 (2023).10.1002/adem.202201651 ↗
98. Ren, B. et al. Full-color fiber light-emitting diodes based on perovskite quantum wires. Sci. Adv. 10, eadn1095 (2024).10.1126/sciadv.adn1095 ↗
99. Wei, R. et al. Revolutionizing wearable technology: advanced fabrication techniques for body-conformable electronics. npj Flex. Electron. 8, 83 (2024).10.1038/s41528-024-00370-8 ↗
100. Huang, H., Bodnarchuk, M. I., Kershaw, S. V., Kovalenko, M. V. & Rogach, A. L. Lead Halide Perovskite Nanocrystals in the Research Spotlight: Stability and Defect Tolerance. ACS Energy Lett. 2, 2071–2083 (2017).10.1021/acsenergylett.7b00547 ↗