Solution process formation of high performance, stable nanostructured transparent metal electrodes via displacement-diffusion-etch process
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract Transparent electrodes (TEs) with high chemical stability and excellent flexibility are critical for flexible optoelectronic devices, such as photodetectors, solar cells, and light-emitting diodes. Ultrathin metal electrode (thickness less than 20 nm) has been a promising TE candidate, but the fabrication can only be realized by vacuum-based technologies to date, and require tedious surface engineering of the substrates, which are neither ideal for polymeric based flexible applications nor suitable for roll-to-roll large-scale manufacture. This paper presents high-performance nanostructured transparent metal electrodes formation via displacement–diffusion-etch (DDE) process, which enables the solution-processed sub-20-nm-thick ultrathin gold electrodes (UTAuEs) on a wide variety of hard and soft substrates. UTAuEs fabricated on flexible polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrates show a high chemical/environmental stability and superior bendability to commercial flexible indium–tin-oxide (ITO) electrodes. Moreover, flexible organic solar cells made with UTAuEs show similar power conversion efficiency but much enhanced flexibility, in comparison to that of ITO-based devices.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Nanomaterials and Printing Technologies · Advanced Sensor and Energy Harvesting Materials · Organic Light-Emitting Diodes Research
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (47)
Show source-provided references
1. Zhang, Y., Ng, S.-W., Lu, X. & Zheng, Z. Solution-processed transparent electrodes for emerging thin-film solar cells. Chem. Rev. 120, 2049–2122 (2020).10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00483 ↗
2. Fukuda, K., Yu, K. & Someya, T. The future of flexible organic solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 10, 2000765 (2020).10.1002/aenm.202000765 ↗
3. Hu, X. et al. A mechanically robust conducting polymer network electrode for efficient flexible perovskite solar cells. Joule 3, 2205–2218 (2019).10.1016/j.joule.2019.06.011 ↗
4. Kaltenbrunner, M. et al. Ultrathin and lightweight organic solar cells with high flexibility. Nat. Commun. 3, 770 (2012).10.1038/ncomms1772 ↗
5. Yan, C. et al. Reducing VOC loss via structure compatible and high lowest unoccupied molecular orbital nonfullerene acceptors for over 17%-efficiency ternary organic photovoltaics. EcoMat 2, e12061 (2020).10.1002/eom2.12061 ↗
6. Han, Y. C., Lim, M. S., Park, J. H. & Choi, K. C. ITO-free flexible organic light-emitting diode using ZnS/Ag/MoO3 anode incorporating a quasi-perfect Ag thin film. Org. Electron. 14, 3437–3443 (2013).10.1016/j.orgel.2013.09.014 ↗
7. Harkema, S. et al. Large area ITO-free flexible white OLEDs with Orgacon PEDOT:PSS and printed metal shunting lines. Proc. SPIE 7415, 74150T (2009).10.1117/12.825246 ↗
8. Gaynor, W. et al. Color in the corners: ITO-free white OLEDs with angular color stability. Adv. Mater. 25, 4006–4013 (2013).10.1002/adma.201300923 ↗
9. Baierl, D., Fabel, B., Lugli, P. & Scarpa, G. Efficient indium-tin-oxide (ITO) free top-absorbing organic photodetector with highly transparent polymer top electrode. Org. Electron. 12, 1669–1673 (2011).10.1016/j.orgel.2011.06.021 ↗
10. Park, S. H. et al. 3D printed polymer photodetectors. Adv. Mater. 30, 1803980 (2018).10.1002/adma.201803980 ↗
11. Baierl, D. et al. A hybrid CMOS-imager with a solution-processable polymer as photoactive layer. Nat. Commun. 3, 1175 (2012).10.1038/ncomms2180 ↗
12. Singh, R., Tharion, J., Murugan, S. & Kumar, A. ITO-free solution-processed flexible electrochromic devices based on PEDOT:PSS as transparent conducting electrode. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9, 19427–19435 (2017).10.1021/acsami.6b09476 ↗
13. An, T. et al. Dynamically functioning and highly stretchable epidermal supercapacitor based on vertically aligned gold nanowire skins. EcoMat 2, e12022 (2020).10.1002/eom2.12022 ↗
14. Hu, L., Kim, H. S., Lee, J.-Y., Peumans, P. & Cui, Y. Scalable coating and properties of transparent, flexible, silver nanowire electrodes. ACS Nano 4, 2955–2963 (2010).10.1021/nn1005232 ↗
15. Wu, H. et al. A transparent electrode based on a metal nanotrough network. Nat. Nanotechnol. 8, 421–425 (2013).10.1038/nnano.2013.84 ↗
16. Khan, A. et al. High-performance flexible transparent electrode with an embedded metal mesh fabricated by cost-effective solution process. Small 12, 3021–3030 (2016).10.1002/smll.201600309 ↗
17. Lee, J.-Y., Connor, S. T., Cui, Y. & Peumans, P. Solution-processed metal nanowire mesh transparent electrodes. Nano Lett. 8, 689–692 (2008).10.1021/nl073296g ↗
18. Deng, B. et al. Roll-to-roll encapsulation of metal nanowires between graphene and plastic substrate for high-performance flexible transparent electrodes. Nano Lett. 15, 4206–4213 (2015).10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b01531 ↗
19. Tang, H. et al. Highly conducting MXene–silver nanowire transparent electrodes for flexible organic solar cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 11, 25330–25337 (2019).10.1021/acsami.9b04113 ↗
20. Chen, X. et al. Printable high-aspect ratio and high-resolution Cu grid flexible transparent conductive film with figure of merit over 80 000. Adv. Electron Mater. 5, 1800991 (2019).10.1002/aelm.201800991 ↗
21. Coskun, S., Selen Ates, E., Emrah & Unalan, H. Optimization of silver nanowire networks for polymer light emitting diode electrodes. Nanotechnology 24, 125202 (2013).10.1088/0957-4484/24/12/125202 ↗
22. Han, Y. et al. Efficiency above 12% for 1 cm2 flexible organic solar cells with Ag/Cu grid transparent conducting electrode. Adv. Sci. 6, 1901490 (2019).10.1002/advs.201901490 ↗
23. Kang, M.-G., Kim, M.-S., Kim, J. & Guo, L. J. Organic solar cells using nanoimprinted transparent metal electrodes. Adv. Mater. 20, 4408–4413 (2008).10.1002/adma.200800750 ↗
24. Gassner, M. et al. Energy consumption and material fluxes in hard coating deposition processes. Surf. Coat. Technol. 299, 49–55 (2016).10.1016/j.surfcoat.2016.04.062 ↗
25. Baptista, A., Silva, F., Porteiro, J., Míguez, J. & Pinto, G. Sputtering physical vapour deposition (PVD) coatings: a critical review on process improvement and market trend demands. Coatings 8, 402 (2018).10.3390/coatings8110402 ↗
26. Yun, J. Ultrathin metal films for transparent electrodes of flexible optoelectronic devices. Adv. Funct. Mater. 27, 1606641 (2017).10.1002/adfm.201606641 ↗
27. Kazmerski, L. L. & Racine, D. M. Growth, environmental, and electrical properties of ultrathin metal films. J. Appl. Phys. 46, 791–795 (1975).10.1063/1.321647 ↗
28. Todeschini, M., Bastos da Silva Fanta, A., Jensen, F., Wagner, J. B. & Han, A. Influence of Ti and Cr adhesion layers on ultrathin Au films. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9, 37374–37385 (2017).10.1021/acsami.7b10136 ↗
29. Stec, H. M., Williams, R. J., Jones, T. S. & Hatton, R. A. Ultrathin transparent Au electrodes for organic photovoltaics fabricated using a mixed mono-molecular nucleation layer. Adv. Funct. Mater. 21, 1709–1716 (2011).10.1002/adfm.201002021 ↗
30. Ren, Z. et al. Strategies for high performance perovskite/crystalline silicon four-terminal tandem solar cells. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 179, 36–44 (2018).10.1016/j.solmat.2018.01.004 ↗
31. Han, G. S. et al. Multi-functional transparent electrode for reliable flexible perovskite solar cells. J. Power Sources 435, 226768 (2019).10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.226768 ↗
32. Hong, K. et al. Optical properties of WO3/Ag/WO3 multilayer as transparent cathode in top-emitting organic light emitting diodes. J. Phys. Chem. C. 115, 3453–3459 (2011).10.1021/jp109943b ↗
33. Henriquez, R. et al. Effect of a metallic surfactant on the electrical percolation of gold films. Appl. Surf. Sci. 489, 403–408 (2019).10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.05.347 ↗
34. Yakubovsky, D. I. et al. Ultrathin and ultrasmooth gold films on monolayer MoS2. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 6, 1900196 (2019).10.1002/admi.201900196 ↗
35. Ji, C., Liu, D., Zhang, C. & Jay Guo, L. Ultrathin-metal-film-based transparent electrodes with relative transmittance surpassing 100%. Nat. Commun. 11, 3367 (2020).10.1038/s41467-020-17107-6 ↗
36. Bi, Y.-G. et al. Ultrathin metal films as the transparent electrode in ITO-free organic optoelectronic devices. Adv. Opt. Mater. 7, 1800778 (2019).10.1002/adom.201800778 ↗
37. Zou, J., Li, C.-Z., Chang, C.-Y., Yip, H.-L. & Jen, A. K.-Y. Interfacial engineering of ultrathin metal film transparent electrode for flexible organic photovoltaic cells. Adv. Mater. 26, 3618–3623 (2014).10.1002/adma.201306212 ↗
38. Li, G. et al. High-efficiency solution processable polymer photovoltaic cells by self-organization of polymer blends. Nat. Mater. 4, 864–868 (2005).10.1038/nmat1500 ↗
39. Cheng, P., Li, G., Zhan, X. & Yang, Y. Next-generation organic photovoltaics based on non-fullerene acceptors. Nat. Photon. 12, 131–142 (2018).10.1038/s41566-018-0104-9 ↗
40. Yu, Y. et al. Photoreactive and metal-platable copolymer inks for high-throughput, room-temperature printing of flexible metal electrodes for thin-film electronics. Adv. Mater. 28, 4926–4934 (2016).10.1002/adma.201505119 ↗
41. Chang, C. A. Outdiffusion of Cu through Au: comparison of (100) and (111) Cu films epitaxially deposited on Si, and effects of annealing ambients. Appl. Phys. Lett. 55, 2754–2756 (1989).10.1063/1.101944 ↗
42. Madakson, P. & Liu, J. C. Interdiffusion and resistivity of Cu/Au, Cu/Co, Co/Au, and Cu/Co/Au thin films at 25–550 °C. J. Appl. Phys. 68, 2121–2126 (1990).10.1063/1.346567 ↗
43. Chauvin, A. et al. Vapor dealloying of ultra-thin films: a promising concept for the fabrication of highly flexible transparent conductive metal nanomesh electrodes. npj Flex. Electron 3, 5 (2019).10.1038/s41528-019-0049-1 ↗
44. Geng, Z. & He, J. An effective method to significantly enhance the robustness and adhesion-to-substrate of high transmittance superamphiphobic silica thin films. J. Mater. Chem. A 2, 16601–16607 (2014).10.1039/C4TA03533J ↗
45. Molina, L. M., López, M. J. & Alonso, J. A. Interaction of aromatic molecules with small gold clusters. Chem. Phys. Lett. 684, 91–96 (2017).10.1016/j.cplett.2017.06.024 ↗
46. Yoon, J. et al. Superflexible, high-efficiency perovskite solar cells utilizing graphene electrodes: towards future foldable power sources. Energy Environ. Sci. 10, 337–345 (2017).10.1039/C6EE02650H ↗
47. Haacke, G. New figure of merit for transparent conductors. J. Appl. Phys. 47, 4086–4089 (1976).10.1063/1.323240 ↗