Tunable anion transport and the chemical transistor effect in functionalized graphene oxide membranes
Source abstract
Abstract
Selective anion transport is essential for energy conversion, water purification, and electrochemical systems, yet achieving precise ion selectivity in membranes remains a challenge. Here, we present an amino-functionalized graphene oxide (am-GO) membrane that enables tunable anion transport through nanochannels. Using a combined experimental and computational approach, we consider the three stages of ionic transport—absorption, diffusion, and desorption—to reveal that Cl − selectively diffuses through nanochannels, while NO 3 − , SO 4 2− , and PO 4 3− are excluded. In ionic mixtures, the chemical transistor effect emerges, where Cl − pulls water from NO 3 − hydration shell, enhancing its mobility, while SO 4 2− and PO 4 3− remain excluded due to size constraints. This mechanism enables precisely regulated Cl − and NO 3 − transport, with ultrahigh rejection rates of 99.99% for SO 4 2− and PO 4 3− , even in complex ionic environments. The am-GO exhibits stability and anion-hopping mechanisms, making it a versatile platform for anion exchange membranes in electrolysis, energy storage, and environmental applications.
Source: openalex_inverted_index · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Fuel Cells and Related Materials · Membrane Separation Technologies · Membrane-based Ion Separation Techniques
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (87)
Show source-provided references
1. Jin, Y. et al. Energy production and water savings from floating solar photovoltaics on global reservoirs. Nat. Sustain. 6, 865–874, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-023-01089-6 (2023).10.1038/s41893-023-01089-6 ↗
2. Roger, I., Shipman, M. A. & Symes, M. D. Earth-abundant catalysts for electrochemical and photoelectrochemical water splitting. Nat. Rev. Chem. 1, 0003, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-016-0003 (2017).10.1038/s41570-016-0003 ↗
3. Kammen, D. M. & Sunter, D. A. City-integrated renewable energy for urban sustainability. Science 352, 922–928, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad9302 (2016).10.1126/science.aad9302 ↗
4. Xu, J. et al. Ion resource recovery via electrodialysis fabricated with poly(arylene ether sulfone)-based anion exchange membrane in organic solvent system. Small 20, 2306313, https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202306313 (2024).10.1002/smll.202306313 ↗
5. He, G. et al. Nanostructured ion-exchange membranes for fuel cells: recent advances and perspectives. Adv. Mater. 27, 5280–5295, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201501406 (2015).10.1002/adma.201501406 ↗
6. Li, X., Zhang, H., Mai, Z., Zhang, H. & Vankelecom, I. Ion exchange membranes for vanadium redox flow battery (VRB) applications. Energy Environ. Sci. 4, 1147–1160, https://doi.org/10.1039/C0EE00770F (2011).10.1039/C0EE00770F ↗
7. Ye, C. et al. Development of efficient aqueous organic redox flow batteries using ion-sieving sulfonated polymer membranes. Nat. Commun. 13, 3184, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-30943-y (2022).10.1038/s41467-022-30943-y ↗
8. Du, N. et al. Anion-exchange membrane water electrolyzers. Chem. Rev. 122, 11830–11895, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00854 (2022).10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00854 ↗
9. Manikandan, D., Karishma, S., Kumar, M. & Nayak, P. K. Salinity gradient induced blue energy generation using two-dimensional membranes. npj 2D Mater. Appl. 8, 47, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41699-024-00486-5 (2024).10.1038/s41699-024-00486-5 ↗
10. Tang, J. et al. All-natural 2D nanofluidics as highly-efficient osmotic energy generators. Nat. Commun. 15, 3649, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-47915-z (2024).10.1038/s41467-024-47915-z ↗
11. Alabi, A. et al. Review of nanomaterials-assisted ion exchange membranes for electromembrane desalination. npj Clean. Water 1, 10, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-018-0009-7 (2018).10.1038/s41545-018-0009-7 ↗
12. Strathmann, H. in Sustainability Science and Engineering 2 (eds. I. C. Escobar & A. I. Schäfer) 141−199 (Elsevier, 2010).10.1016/S1871-2711(09)00206-2 ↗
13. Kikhavani, T., Ashrafizadeh, S. N. & Van der Bruggen, B. Nitrate selectivity and transport properties of a novel anion exchange membrane in electrodialysis. Electrochim. Acta 144, 341–351, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2014.08.012 (2014).10.1016/j.electacta.2014.08.012 ↗
14. Zuo, P. et al. Ion exchange membranes: constructing and tuning ion transport channels. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32, 2207366, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202207366 (2022).10.1002/adfm.202207366 ↗
15. Maurya, S., Shin, S.-H., Kim, M.-K., Yun, S.-H. & Moon, S.-H. Stability of composite anion exchange membranes with various functional groups and their performance for energy conversion. J. Membr. Sci. 443, 28–35, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2013.04.035 (2013).10.1016/j.memsci.2013.04.035 ↗
16. Marin, D. H. et al. Hydrogen production with seawater-resilient bipolar membrane electrolyzers. Joule 7, 765–781, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2023.03.005 (2023).10.1016/j.joule.2023.03.005 ↗
17. Fei, H. et al. Direct seawater electrolysis: from catalyst design to device applications. Adv. Mater. 36, 2309211, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202309211 (2024).10.1002/adma.202309211 ↗
18. Chen, M. & Jafvert, C. T. Anion recovery from water by cross-linked cationic surfactant nanoparticles across dialysis membranes. Environ. Sci. Nano 5, 1350–1360, https://doi.org/10.1039/C8EN00281A (2018).10.1039/C8EN00281A ↗
19. Goel, P. et al. Di-quaternized graphene oxide based multi-cationic cross-linked monovalent selective anion exchange membrane for electrodialysis. Sep. Purif. Technol. 276, 119361, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2021.119361 (2021).10.1016/j.seppur.2021.119361 ↗
20. Irfan, M., Ge, L., Wang, Y., Yang, Z. & Xu, T. Hydrophobic side chains impart anion exchange membranes with high monovalent–divalent anion selectivity in electrodialysis. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7, 4429–4442, https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b06426 (2019).10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b06426 ↗
21. Xie, M., Shon, H. K., Gray, S. R. & Elimelech, M. Membrane-based processes for wastewater nutrient recovery: technology, challenges, and future direction. Water Res 89, 210–221, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.11.045 (2016).10.1016/j.watres.2015.11.045 ↗
22. Zuo, K. et al. Selective membranes in water and wastewater treatment: role of advanced materials. Mater. Today 50, 516–532, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2021.06.013 (2021).10.1016/j.mattod.2021.06.013 ↗
23. Shih, A. J. et al. Water electrolysis. Nat. Rev. Methods Prim. 2, 84, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-022-00164-0 (2022).10.1038/s43586-022-00164-0 ↗
24. Oener, S. Z., Ardo, S. & Boettcher, S. W. Ionic processes in water electrolysis: the role of ion-selective membranes. ACS Energy Lett. 2, 2625–2634, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.7b00764 (2017).10.1021/acsenergylett.7b00764 ↗
25. Tufa, R. A. et al. in Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cells 125−142 (2024).10.1002/9783527837588.ch6 ↗
26. Liu, T., Wei, X., Nie, Z., Sprenkle, V. & Wang, W. A total organic aqueous redox flow battery employing a low cost and sustainable methyl viologen anolyte and 4-HO-TEMPO catholyte. Adv. Energy Mater. 6, 1501449, https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201501449 (2016).10.1002/aenm.201501449 ↗
27. Jang, S.-S. et al. Methyl viologen anolyte introducing nitrate as counter-anion for an aqueous redox flow battery. J. Electrochem. Soc. 168. https://doi.org/10.1149/1945-7111/ac2759 (2021).10.1149/1945-7111/ac2759 ↗
28. Rajarathnam, G. P., Schneider, M., Sun, X. & Vassallo, A. M. The influence of supporting electrolytes on zinc half-cell performance in zinc/bromine flow batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 163, A5112–A5117, https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0151601jes (2015).10.1149/2.0151601jes ↗
29. Li, L. et al. A stable vanadium redox-flow battery with high energy density for large-scale energy storage. Adv. Energy Mater. 1, 394–400, https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201100008 (2011).10.1002/aenm.201100008 ↗
30. Roznyatovskaya, N. V. et al. The role of phosphate additive in stabilization of sulphuric-acid-based vanadium(V) electrolyte for all-vanadium redox-flow batteries. J. Power Sources 363, 234–243, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.07.100 (2017).10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.07.100 ↗
31. Liu, Y.-C., Yeh, L.-H., Zheng, M.-J. & Wu, K. C.-W. Highly selective and high-performance osmotic power generators in subnanochannel membranes enabled by metal-organic frameworks. Sci. Adv. 7, eabe9924, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abe9924 (2021).10.1126/sciadv.abe9924 ↗
32. Zhang, F., Yu, J., Si, Y. & Ding, B. Meta-aerogel ion motor for nanofluid osmotic energy harvesting. Adv. Mater. 35, 2302511, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202302511 (2023).10.1002/adma.202302511 ↗
33. Xiao, J. et al. Self-assembled nanoporous metal–organic framework monolayer film for osmotic energy harvesting. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2307996, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202307996 (2024).10.1002/adfm.202307996 ↗
34. Goutham, S. et al. Beyond steric selectivity of ions using ångström-scale capillaries. Nat. Nanotechnol. 18, 596–601, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-023-01337-y (2023).10.1038/s41565-023-01337-y ↗
35. Liu, M. L. et al. Microporous membrane with ionized sub-nanochannels enabling highly selective monovalent and divalent anion separation. Nat. Commun. 15, 7271, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-51540-1 (2024).10.1038/s41467-024-51540-1 ↗
36. Epsztein, R., DuChanois, R. M., Ritt, C. L., Noy, A. & Elimelech, M. Towards single-species selectivity of membranes with subnanometre pores. Nat. Nanotechnol. 15, 426–436, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-020-0713-6 (2020).10.1038/s41565-020-0713-6 ↗
37. Lounder, S. J. & Asatekin, A. Interaction-based ion selectivity exhibited by self-assembled, cross-linked zwitterionic copolymer membranes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2022198118 (2021).10.1073/pnas.2022198118 ↗
38. Gouaux, E. & MacKinnon, R. Principles of selective ion transport in channels and pumps. Science 310, 1461–1465, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1113666 (2005).10.1126/science.1113666 ↗
39. Liu, X. et al. Highly anion-conductive viologen-based two-dimensional polymer membranes as nanopower generators. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 63, e202409349, https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202409349 (2024).10.1002/anie.202409349 ↗
40. Johnson, C. W. et al. The effects of morphology and hydration on anion transport in self-assembled nanoporous membranes. ACS Nano 19, 2559–2569, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.4c14234 (2025).10.1021/acsnano.4c14234 ↗
41. Hong, Z. et al. Rigid and flexible coupled micropore membranes enabling ultra-efficient anion separation. AIChE J. 71, e18803, https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.18803 (2025).10.1002/aic.18803 ↗
42. Zhang, H. et al. Electrostatic-induced ion-confined partitioning in graphene nanolaminate membrane for breaking anion–cation co-transport to enhance desalination. Nat. Commun. 15, 4324, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-48681-8 (2024).10.1038/s41467-024-48681-8 ↗
43. Zhang, W. H. et al. Graphene oxide membranes with stable porous structure for ultrafast water transport. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 337–343, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-020-00833-9 (2021).10.1038/s41565-020-00833-9 ↗
44. Yang, K. et al. Graphene oxide–polyamine preprogrammable nanoreactors with sensing capability for corrosion protection of materials. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 120, e2307618120, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2307618120 (2023).10.1073/pnas.2307618120 ↗
45. Yang, K. et al. Graphene/chitosan nanoreactors for ultrafast and precise recovery and catalytic conversion of gold from electronic waste. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 121, e2414449121, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2414449121 (2024).10.1073/pnas.2414449121 ↗
46. Wang, S. et al. Toward explicit anion transport nanochannels for osmotic power energy using positive charged MXene membrane via amination strategy. J. Membr. Sci. 668, 121203, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2022.121203 (2023).10.1016/j.memsci.2022.121203 ↗
47. Xu, R., Kang, Y., Zhang, W., Pan, B. & Zhang, X. Two-dimensional MXene membranes with biomimetic sub-nanochannels for enhanced cation sieving. Nat. Commun. 14, 4907, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40742-8 (2023).10.1038/s41467-023-40742-8 ↗
48. Wang, J. et al. Unlocking osmotic energy harvesting potential in challenging real-world hypersaline environments through vermiculite-based hetero-nanochannels. Nat. Commun. 15, 608, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44434-1 (2024).10.1038/s41467-023-44434-1 ↗
49. Meng, Q.-W. et al. Optimizing selectivity via membrane molecular packing manipulation for simultaneous cation and anion screening. Sci. Adv. 10, eado8658, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.ado8658 (2024).10.1126/sciadv.ado8658 ↗
50. Lai, Z. et al. Covalent–organic-framework membrane with aligned dipole moieties for biomimetic regulable ion transport. Adv. Funct. Mater. 34, 2409356, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202409356 (2024).10.1002/adfm.202409356 ↗
51. Chen, M. et al. Control of gas selectivity and permeability through COF-GO composite membranes for sustainable decarbonization and hydrogen production. Carbon 219, 118855, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2024.118855 (2024).10.1016/j.carbon.2024.118855 ↗
52. Fu, L., Yang, Z., Wang, Y., Li, R. & Zhai, J. Construction of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)–based membranes and their ion transport applications. Small Sci. 1, 2000035, https://doi.org/10.1002/smsc.202000035 (2021).10.1002/smsc.202000035 ↗
53. Chen, S. et al. Perspectives in the design and application of composites based on graphene derivatives and bio-based polymers. Polym. Int. 69, 1173–1186, https://doi.org/10.1002/pi.6080 (2020).10.1002/pi.6080 ↗
54. Yang, K. et al. Electro-thermo controlled water valve based on 2D graphene–cellulose hydrogels. Adv. Funct. Mater. 32, 2201904, https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202201904 (2022).10.1002/adfm.202201904 ↗
55. Wu, B. et al. Reverse-selective anion separation relies on charged “hourglass” gate. Small 20, 2404061, https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202404061 (2024).10.1002/smll.202404061 ↗
56. Huang, W.-L., Wang, X.-D., Ao, Y.-F., Wang, Q.-Q. & Wang, D.-X. Mimicking the shape and function of the clc chloride channel selective pore by combining a molecular hourglass shape with anion–π interactions. Chem. Eur. J. 30, e202304222, https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.202304222 (2024).10.1002/chem.202304222 ↗
57. Photiou, P., Koutsokeras, L., Constantinides, G., Koutinas, M. & Vyrides, I. Phosphate removal from synthetic and real wastewater using thermally treated seagrass residues of Posidonia oceanica. J. Clean. Prod. 278, 123294, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123294 (2021).10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123294 ↗
58. Ahdab, Y. D., Schücking, G., Rehman, D. & Lienhard, J. H. Treatment of greenhouse wastewater for reuse or disposal using monovalent selective electrodialysis. Desalination 507, 115037, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2021.115037 (2021).10.1016/j.desal.2021.115037 ↗
59. Skorb, E. V., Möhwald, H. & Andreeva, D. V. How can one controllably use of natural δph in polyelectrolyte multilayers? Adv. Mater. Interfaces 4, 1600282, https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.201600282 (2017).10.1002/admi.201600282 ↗
60. Andreeva, D. V. et al. Two-dimensional adaptive membranes with programmable water and ionic channels. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 174–180, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-020-00795-y (2020).10.1038/s41565-020-00795-y ↗
61. Guo, H. et al. Preparation of graphene oxide-based hydrogels as efficient dye adsorbents for wastewater treatment. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 10, 272, https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-015-0931-2 (2015).10.1186/s11671-015-0931-2 ↗
62. Tong, W. et al. Achieving significantly enhanced dielectric performance of reduced graphene oxide/polymer composite by covalent modification of graphene oxide surface. Carbon 94, 590–598, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2015.07.005 (2015).10.1016/j.carbon.2015.07.005 ↗
63. Zheng, S., Tu, Q., Urban, J. J., Li, S. & Mi, B. Swelling of graphene oxide membranes in aqueous solution: characterization of interlayer spacing and insight into water transport mechanisms. ACS Nano 11, 6440–6450, https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.7b02999 (2017).10.1021/acsnano.7b02999 ↗
64. Nightingale, E. R. Phenomenological theory of ion solvation. Effective radii of hydrated ions. J. Phys. Chem. 63, 1381–1387, https://doi.org/10.1021/j150579a011 (1959).10.1021/j150579a011 ↗
65. Joshi, R. et al. Precise and ultrafast molecular sieving through graphene oxide membranes. Science 343, 752–754 (2014).10.1126/science.1245711 ↗
66. Zhou, X. et al. Intrapore energy barriers govern ion transport and selectivity of desalination membranes. Sci. Adv. 6, eabd9045, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abd9045 (2020).10.1126/sciadv.abd9045 ↗
67. Chen, L. et al. Ion sieving in graphene oxide membranes via cationic control of interlayer spacing. Nature 550, 380–383, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature24044 (2017).10.1038/nature24044 ↗
68. Burns, D. B. & Zydney, A. L. Buffer effects on the zeta potential of ultrafiltration membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 172, 39–48, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-7388(00)00315-X (2000).10.1016/S0376-7388(00)00315-X ↗
69. He, N. et al. Identification of inorganic oxidizing salts in homemade explosives using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Spectrochim. Acta, Part A 221, 117164, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2019.117164 (2019).10.1016/j.saa.2019.117164 ↗
70. Sauerbrey, G. Use of quartz vibrator for weighing thin layers and as a micro-balance. Z. Phys. 155, 206–222, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01337937 (1959).10.1007/BF01337937 ↗
71. Wang, J., Kingsbury, R. S., Perry, L. A. & Coronell, O. Partitioning of alkali metal salts and boric acid from aqueous phase into the polyamide active layers of reverse osmosis membranes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51, 2295–2303, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04323 (2017).10.1021/acs.est.6b04323 ↗
72. Heyrovská, R. Equations for densities and dissociation constant of NaCl(aq) at 25 °C from “zero to saturation” based on partial dissociation. J. Electrochem. Soc. 144, 2380, https://doi.org/10.1149/1.1837822 (1997).10.1149/1.1837822 ↗
73. Persson, I. Structure and size of complete hydration shells of metal ions and inorganic anions in aqueous solution. Dalton Trans. 53, 15517–15538, https://doi.org/10.1039/D4DT01449A (2024).10.1039/D4DT01449A ↗
74. Smith, D. W. Ionic hydration enthalpies. J. Chem. Educ. 54, 540, https://doi.org/10.1021/ed054p540 (1977).10.1021/ed054p540 ↗
75. Eiberweiser, A., Nazet, A., Hefter, G. & Buchner, R. Ion hydration and association in aqueous potassium phosphate solutions. J. Phys. Chem. B. 119, 5270–5281, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b01417 (2015).10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b01417 ↗
76. Krienke. On the influence of molecular structure on the conductivity of electrolyte solutions—sodium nitrate in water. Condens. Matter Phys. 16. https://doi.org/10.5488/cmp.16.43006 (2013).10.5488/cmp.16.43006 ↗
77. Aydogan Gokturk, P. et al. The Donnan potential revealed. Nat. Commun. 13, 5880, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-33592-3 (2022).10.1038/s41467-022-33592-3 ↗
78. Zhang, H. et al. Improving ion rejection of conductive nanofiltration membrane through electrically enhanced surface charge density. Environ. Sci. Technol. 53, 868–877, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b04268 (2019).10.1021/acs.est.8b04268 ↗
79. Wijmans, J. G. & Baker, R. W. The solution-diffusion model: a review. J. Membr. Sci. 107, 1–21, https://doi.org/10.1016/0376-7388(95)00102-I (1995).10.1016/0376-7388(95)00102-I ↗
80. Fournier, J. A., Carpenter, W., De Marco, L. & Tokmakoff, A. Interplay of ion–water and water–water interactions within the hydration shells of nitrate and carbonate directly probed with 2D IR spectroscopy. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 138, 9634–9645, https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.6b05122 (2016).10.1021/jacs.6b05122 ↗
81. Kropman, M. F. & Bakker, H. J. Dynamics of water molecules in aqueous solvation shells. Science 291, 2118–2120, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1058190 (2001).10.1126/science.1058190 ↗
82. Mountain, R. D. Solvation structure of ions in water. Int. J. Thermophys. 28, 536–543, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10765-007-0154-6 (2007).10.1007/s10765-007-0154-6 ↗
83. Yadav, S., Choudhary, A. & Chandra, A. A first-principles molecular dynamics study of the solvation shell structure, vibrational spectra, polarity, and dynamics around a nitrate ion in aqueous solution. J. Phys. Chem. B 121, 9032–9044, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcb.7b06809 (2017).10.1021/acs.jpcb.7b06809 ↗
84. Peng, C., Ayala, P. Y., Schlegel, H. B. & Frisch, M. J. Using redundant internal coordinates to optimize equilibrium geometries and transition states. J. Comput. Chem. 17, 49–56 (1996).10.1002/(SICI)1096-987X(19960115)17:1<49::AID-JCC5>3.0.CO;2-0 ↗
85. Vager, Z., Naaman, R. & Kanter, E. P. Coulomb explosion imaging of small molecules. Science 244, 426−431 (1989).10.1126/science.244.4903.426 ↗
86. Kac, M. Random walk and the theory of Brownian motion. Am. Math. Mon. 54, 369–391, https://doi.org/10.1080/00029890.1947.11990189 (1947).10.1080/00029890.1947.11990189 ↗
87. Wang, L. et al. Salt and water transport in reverse osmosis membranes: beyond the solution-diffusion model. Environ. Sci. Technol. 55, 16665–16675, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c05649 (2021).10.1021/acs.est.1c05649 ↗