Performance of limestone calcined clay cement (LC3) incorporating low-grade marine clay

Clay is a globally abundant material and can potentially be used as a cement substitute after calcination. Though kaolinitic clay exhibits notable reactivity, the potential of low-grade clay with relatively low kaolinite content remains underexplored. This study comprehensively analyzed the chemical and mineralogical composition of marine clays at various locations and depths in Singapore, assessing their feasibility for preparing limestone calcined clay cement (LC3). The hydration kinetics and microstructure development of LC3 pastes, incorporating calcined marine clay, were investigated by XRD, isothermal calorimetry, SEM, and MIP. Additionally, a mini-migration test was employed to investigate chloride ion diffusion in LC3 pastes. The results revealed that Singapore marine clays contain relatively low kaolinite content (16–20% by QXRD). Despite a 25% reduction of 28 days compressive strength compared to reference OPC, LC3 samples exhibited outstanding resistance against chloride penetration regardless of kaolinite content (<40%) or replacement level (LC3-70 or LC3-50). The chloride diffusion coefficient (LC3-50) is one order of magnitude lower than the OPC system. Overall, our findings broaden the selection of raw materials for LC3 preparation and underscore the robustness of LC3 to resist chloride penetration, irrespective of variations in the clay's quality or source.