Iota‐carrageenan/chitosan/gelatin scaffold for the osteogenic differentiation of adipose‐derived MSCsin vitro

Abstract In this study, we have developed ι‐carrageenan/chitosan/gelatin (CCG) scaffold containing multiple functional groups (‐NH₂, ‐OH, ‐COOH, and –SO₃H) to resemble the native extracellular matrix (ECM), using the ion‐shielding technology and ultrasonic dispersion method. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) of the CCG scaffolds suggests that the formation of CCG network involves electrostatic interactions between ι‐carrageenan (ι‐CA) and chitosan/gelatin, and the covalent cross‐linking among amino groups of chitosan and/or gelatin. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) observation reveals that the porous structure of scaffolds can be modulated by the ratio of ι‐CA to chitosan/gelatin. The swelling ratio of the hydrogels increases as the ι‐CA contents increase. Using differential scanning calorimetry, we found that the double helix structure of ι‐CA is only stabilized at low contents of ι‐CA in the CCG scaffolds (e.g., 5 wt %). The scaffolds containing 5% ι‐CA showed the best protein adsorption capacity (4.46 ± 0.63 μg protein/mg scaffold) and elastic modulus (5.37 ± 1.03 MPa). In addition, the CCG scaffolds exhibit excellent support for adipose‐derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs) attachment and proliferation, and they can improve the osteogenic differentiation and neovascularization capacities of ADMSCs. Overall, we conclude that the CCG may represent an ideal scaffold material for bone tissue engineering. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater, 103B: 1498–1510, 2015.