Second-Life Batteries: A Review on Power Grid Applications, Degradation Mechanisms, and Power Electronics Interface Architectures
Source abstract
Abstract
The adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is increasing due to governmental policies focused on curbing climate change. EV batteries are retired when they are no longer suitable for energy-intensive EV operations. A large number of EV batteries are expected to be retired in the next 5–10 years. These retired batteries have 70–80% average capacity left. Second-life use of these battery packs has the potential to address the increasing energy storage system (ESS) demand for the grid and also to create a circular economy for EV batteries. The needs of modern grids for frequency regulation, power smoothing, and peak shaving can be met using retired batteries. Moreover, these batteries can also be employed for revenue generation for energy arbitrage (EA). While there are articles reviewing the general applications of retired batteries, this paper presents a comprehensive review of the research work on applications of the second-life batteries (SLBs) specific to the power grid and SLB degradation. The power electronics interface and battery management systems for the SLB are also thoroughly reviewed.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Advanced Battery Technologies Research · Advancements in Battery Materials · Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Michigan-Dearborn, Dearborn, MI 48126, USA
Sustainable Energy and Environmental Systems, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
References (96)
Show source-provided references
1. IEA (2023). Global EV Outlook 2023, IEA. Available online: https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023.
2. Engel, H., Hertzke, P., and Siccardo, G. (2019). Second-Life EV Batteries: The Newest Value Pool in Energy Storage, McKinsey & Company.
3. End-of-life or second-life options for retired electric vehicle batteries10.1016/j.xcrp.2021.100537 ↗
4. IEA (2021). The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions, IEA.
5. Recycling end-of-life electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries10.1016/j.joule.2019.09.014 ↗
6. Faessler, B. (2021). Stationary, second use battery energy storage systems and their applications: A research review. Energies, 14.10.3390/en14082335 ↗
7. Operational Planning of Centralized Charging Stations Utilizing Second-Life Battery Energy Storage Systems10.1109/TSTE.2020.3001015 ↗
8. Salek, F., Morrey, D., Henshall, P., and Resalati, S. (2023). Techno-Economic Assessment of Utilising Second-Life Batteries in Electric Vehicle Charging Stations, SAE International. Technical Report, SAE Technical Paper.10.4271/2023-01-0063 ↗
9. A review on second-life of Li-ion batteries: Prospects, challenges, and issues10.1016/j.energy.2021.122881 ↗
10. Khan, S.A., Wang, M., Su, W., Liu, G., and Chaturvedi, S. (2022). Grid-Forming Converters for Stability Issues in Future Power Grids. Energies, 15.10.3390/en15144937 ↗
11. A review of second-life lithium-ion batteries for stationary energy storage applications10.1109/JPROC.2022.3175614 ↗
12. Inertia and droop controller for a modern variable speed wind turbine to provide frequency control in a microgrid10.2339/politeknik.581228 ↗
13. Coordinated control for voltage regulation of distribution network voltage regulation by distributed energy storage systems10.1186/s41601-018-0077-1 ↗
14. Power smoothing of large solar PV plant using hybrid energy storage10.1109/TSTE.2014.2305433 ↗
15. Energy storage system for peak shaving10.1108/IJESM-01-2015-0003 ↗
16. Khan, S.A. (2020;, January 2–3). Unified voltage droop control strategy for VSC-MTDC in HVDC system. Proceedings of the 16th IET International Conference on AC and DC Power Transmission (ACDC 2020), Online.10.1049/icp.2020.0184 ↗
17. Experiment and Simulation of a Modular Push–Pull PWM Converter for a Battery Energy Storage System10.1109/TIA.2013.2274471 ↗
18. Evaluation of Emerging Modular Multilevel Converters for BESS Applications10.1109/TPWRD.2014.2341181 ↗
19. Analysis and Control of Modular Multilevel Converters With Integrated Battery Energy Storage10.1109/TPEL.2014.2303297 ↗
20. Chaturvedi, S., Wang, M., Fan, Y., Fulwani, D., Hollweg, G.V., Khan, S.A., and Su, W. (2023). Control Methodologies to Mitigate and Regulate Second-Order Ripples in DC–AC Conversions and Microgrids: A Brief Review. Energies, 16.10.3390/en16020817 ↗
21. Hollweg, G.V., Khan, S.A., Chaturvedi, S., Fan, Y., Wang, M., and Su, W. (2023). Grid-Connected Converters: A Brief Survey of Topologies, Output Filters, Current Control, and Weak Grids Operation. Energies, 16.10.3390/en16093611 ↗
22. Mukherjee, N., and Strickland, D. (2014, January 8–10). Second life battery energy storage systems: Converter topology and redundancy selection. Proceedings of the 7th IET International Conference on Power Electronics, Machines and Drives (PEMD 2014), Manchester, UK.10.1049/cp.2014.0256 ↗
23. Birkl, C.R., Frost, D.F., Bizeray, A.M., Richardson, R.R., and Howey, D.A. (2014, January 10–13). Modular converter system for low-cost off-grid energy storage using second life li-ion batteries. Proceedings of the IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC 2014), San Jose, CA, USA.10.1109/GHTC.2014.6970281 ↗
24. Adaptive Control of Hybrid Battery Energy Storage Systems under Capacity Fade10.1080/0939-8368.2015.11882293 ↗
25. Control of second-life hybrid battery energy storage system based on modular boost-multilevel buck converter10.1109/TIE.2014.2341598 ↗
26. Reliability-oriented design considerations for high-power converter modules10.1109/PESC.2004.1355782 ↗
27. A Comparison of Redundant Inverter Topologies to Improve Voltage Source Inverter Reliability10.1109/TIA.2007.904436 ↗
28. Ding, Y., Loh, P.C., Tan, K.K., Wang, P., and Gao, F. (2010, January 21–25). Reliability evaluation of three-level inverters. Proceedings of the 2010 Twenty-Fifth Annual IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), Palm Springs, CA, USA.10.1109/APEC.2010.5433438 ↗
29. Beg, O.A., Khan, A.A., Rehman, W.U., and Hassan, A. (2023). A Review of AI-Based Cyber-Attack Detection and Mitigation in Microgrids. Energies, 16.10.3390/en16227644 ↗
30. Williams, B., and Lipman, T. (2011). Analysis of the Combined Vehicle-Use Value of Lithium-Ion Plug-In-Vehicle Propulsion Batteries. Task 3, Second Life Applications and Value of ‘Traction’Lithium Batteries, Transportation Sustainability Research Center, University of California.
31. The ability of battery second use strategies to impact plug-in electric vehicle prices and serve utility energy storage applications10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.06.053 ↗
32. Technoeconomic model of second-life batteries for utility-scale solar considering calendar and cycle aging10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115127 ↗
33. (2023). Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Electric Drive Vehicle Battery Recycling and Second Life Applications Funding Opportunity Announcement, Department of Energy.
34. The role of second-life batteries in the energy storage revolution
35. Second-life batteries for electric vehicles: A review of commercialization and research trends
36. NMSC (2023, October 03). Second-Life EV Battery Market by Battery Type (Lead Acid Battery, Nickel Metal Hydride Battery, and Lithium Ion Battery) by Battery Source (Two Wheelers, Electric Buses, Electric Cars, and Others) and by Application (Residential, on-Grid, off-Grid, and Mobile)—Global Opportunity Analysis and Industry Forecast 2021–2030; 2023. Available online: https://www.nextmsc.com/report/second-life-ev-battery-market.
37. Hassan, A. (2023, October 03). Frequency Control in an Isolated Power System with High Penetration of Wind Power. Available online: https://www.proquest.com/openview/d838d0ba176bc4c8fa823461ab64f2ea/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2026366&diss=y.
38. Quantifying Uncertainties in Reusing Lithium-Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles10.1016/j.promfg.2017.02.077 ↗
39. Multi-functions of amino thiophenol additives for shielding lithium metal anode in advanced Li-S battery10.1016/j.mseb.2023.116727 ↗
40. Identifying the Mechanism of Continued Growth of the Solid–Electrolyte Interphase10.1002/cssc.201800077 ↗
41. Solvent Diffusion Model for Aging of Lithium-Ion Battery Cells10.1149/1.1644601 ↗
42. Theory of SEI Formation in Rechargeable Batteries: Capacity Fade, Accelerated Aging and Lifetime Prediction10.1149/2.044302jes ↗
43. Modeling the SEI-Formation on Graphite Electrodes in LiFePO 4 Batteries10.1149/2.0161506jes ↗
44. Experimental and Theoretical Investigation of Solid-Electrolyte-Interphase Formation Mechanisms on Glassy Carbon10.1149/2.025211jes ↗
45. Aging mechanism in Li ion cells and calendar life predictions10.1016/S0378-7753(01)00722-4 ↗
46. Multi-Scale Simulation of Heterogeneous Surface Film Growth Mechanisms in Lithium-Ion Batteries10.1149/2.0241711jes ↗
47. Revealing SEI Morphology: In-Depth Analysis of a Modeling Approach10.1149/2.0121711jes ↗
48. Dynamics and morphology of solid electrolyte interphase (SEI)10.1039/C6CP02816K ↗
49. Direct calculation of Li-ion transport in the solid electrolyte interphase10.1021/ja305366r ↗
50. Formation and Growth Mechanisms of Solid-Electrolyte Interphase Layers in Rechargeable Batteries10.1021/acs.chemmater.5b03358 ↗
51. Modeling of lithium plating induced aging of lithium-ion batteries: Transition from linear to nonlinear aging10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.05.110 ↗
52. Dubarry, M., and Beck, D. (2020). Big data training data for artificial intelligence-based Li-ion diagnosis and prognosis. J. Power Sources, 479.10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228806 ↗
53. A look into the voltage plateau signal for detection and quantification of lithium plating in lithium-ion cells10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.05.073 ↗
54. Visualization and quantification of electrochemical and mechanical degradation in Li ion batteries10.1126/science.1241882 ↗
55. Size-dependent fracture of silicon nanoparticles during lithiation10.1021/nn204476h ↗
56. A failure modes, mechanisms, and effects analysis (FMMEA) of lithium-ion batteries10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.07.100 ↗
57. A review on the key issues of the lithium ion battery degradation among the whole life cycle10.1016/j.etran.2019.100005 ↗
58. Ageing mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.01.006 ↗
59. State of charge estimation for lithium-ion batteries using model-based and data-driven methods: A review10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2942213 ↗
60. Review of “grey box” lifetime modeling for lithium-ion battery: Combining physics and data-driven methods10.1016/j.est.2022.105992 ↗
61. Li, J., He, S., Yang, Q., Wei, Z., Li, Y., and He, H. (2022). A Comprehensive Review of Second Life Batteries Towards Sustainable Mechanisms: Potential, Challenges, and Future Prospects. IEEE Trans. Transp. Electrif.10.1109/TTE.2022.3220411 ↗
62. (2020). Identification and machine learning prediction of knee-point and knee-onset in capacity degradation curves of lithium-ion cells. Energy AI, 1, 100006.10.1016/j.egyai.2020.100006 ↗
63. Diao, W., Saxena, S., Han, B., and Pecht, M. (2019). Algorithm to determine the knee point on capacity fade curves of lithium-ion cells. Energies, 12.10.3390/en12152910 ↗
64. Data-driven prediction of battery cycle life before capacity degradation10.1038/s41560-019-0356-8 ↗
65. Pozzato, G., Lee, S.B., and Onori, S. (2021). Modeling Degradation of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Second-Life Applications: Preliminary Results, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc.10.1109/CCTA48906.2021.9659267 ↗
66. Murthy Balijepalli, V.S.K., Pradhan, V., Khaparde, S.A., and Shereef, R.M. (2011, January 1–3). Review of demand response under smart grid paradigm. Proceedings of the ISGT2011-India, Kollam, India.10.1109/ISET-India.2011.6145388 ↗
67. EIA (2020). Battery Storage in the United States: An Update on Market Trends, US Energy Information Administration (EIA).
68. Fitzgerald, G., Mandel, J., Morris, J., and Touati, H. (2015). The Economics of Battery Energy Storage: How Multi-Use, Customer-Sited Batteries Deliver the Most Services and Value to Customers and the Grid, Rocky Mountain Institute.
69. Grid-connected energy storage systems: State-of-the-art and emerging technologies10.1109/JPROC.2022.3183289 ↗
70. Review of energy storage system technologies in microgrid applications: Issues and challenges10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2841407 ↗
71. Comparative review of energy storage systems, their roles, and impacts on future power systems10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2888497 ↗
72. Supercapacitors: Electrical Characteristics, Modeling, Applications, and Future Trends10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2908558 ↗
73. Preliminary investigation on economic aspects of superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems and high-temperature superconducting (HTS) transformers10.1109/TASC.2018.2817656 ↗
74. Sizing study of second life Li-ion batteries for enhancing renewable energy grid integration10.1109/TIA.2016.2593425 ↗
75. Pack-level performance of electric vehicle batteries in second-life electricity grid energy services10.1016/j.est.2022.106265 ↗
76. Li, R., Hassan, A., Gupte, N., Su, W., and Zhou, X. (2023). Degradation Prediction and Cost Optimization of Second-Life Battery Used for Energy Arbitrage and Peak-Shaving in an Electric Grid. Energies, 16.10.3390/en16176200 ↗
77. Janota, L., Králík, T., and Knápek, J. (2020). Second life batteries used in energy storage for frequency containment reserve service. Energies, 13.10.3390/en13236396 ↗
78. Second-life EV batteries for stationary storage applications in Local Energy Communities10.1016/j.rser.2022.112913 ↗
79. Repurposed electric vehicle battery performance in second-life electricity grid frequency regulation service10.1016/j.est.2020.101278 ↗
80. Deep Learning for Continuous-Time Leader Synchronization in Graphical Games Using Sampling and Deep Neural Networks
81. Differential Power Processing for Increased Energy Production and Reliability of Photovoltaic Systems10.1109/TPEL.2012.2211082 ↗
82. McClurg, J., Pilawa-Podgurski, R., and Shenoy, P. (2014, January 14–18). A series-stacked architecture for high-efficiency data center power delivery. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition, ECCE 2014, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.10.1109/ECCE.2014.6953391 ↗
83. Cui, X., Ramyar, A., Contreras, V., Judge, G., Siegel, J., Stefanopoulou, A., and Avestruz, A.T. (2021, January 2–5). Lite-Sparse Hierarchical Partial Power Processing for Parallel Batteries in Heterogeneous Energy Storage Systems. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 22nd Workshop on Control and Modelling of Power Electronics (COMPEL), Cartagena, Colombia.10.1109/COMPEL52922.2021.9645943 ↗
84. MMC Based MTDC Grids: A Detailed Review on Issues and Challenges for Operation, Control and Protection Schemes10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3023544 ↗
85. Comparing power processing system approaches in second-use battery energy buffering for electric vehicle charging10.1016/j.est.2022.104017 ↗
86. Parallel Operation of Battery Power Modules10.1109/TEC.2007.914310 ↗
87. (1991). Reliability Prediction of Electronic Equipment, Military Handbook 217-F, Department of Defense.
88. Bathtub Curve (2023, October 03). 21 June 2023. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathtubcurve.
89. Baumann, M., Rohr, S., and Lienkamp, M. (2018, January 10–12). Cloud-connected battery management for decision making on second-life of electric vehicle batteries. Proceedings of the 2018 Thirteenth International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER), Monte Carlo, Monaco.10.1109/EVER.2018.8362355 ↗
90. Abdel-Monem, M., Hegazy, O., Omar, N., Trad, K., Van den Bossche, P., and Van Mierlo, J. (2017, January 11–14). Lithium-ion batteries: Comprehensive technical analysis of second-life batteries for smart grid applications. Proceedings of the 2017 19th European Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE’17 ECCE Europe), Warsaw, Poland.10.23919/EPE17ECCEEurope.2017.8099385 ↗
91. Development and demonstration of microgrid system utilizing second-life electric vehicle batteries10.1016/j.est.2021.102837 ↗
92. Rasheed, M., Hassan, R., Kamel, M., Wang, H., Zane, R., Tong, S., and Smith, K. (2023). Active Reconditioning of Retired Lithium-ion Battery Packs from Electric Vehicles for Second Life Applications. IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Top. Power Electron.10.1109/JESTPE.2023.3325251 ↗
93. Castillo-Martínez, D.H., Rodríguez-Rodríguez, A.J., Soto, A., Berrueta, A., Vargas-Requena, D.T., Matias, I.R., Sanchis, P., Ursúa, A., and Rodríguez-Rodríguez, W.E. (2022). Design and on-field validation of an embedded system for monitoring second-life electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries. Sensors, 22.10.3390/s22176376 ↗
94. Liu, G., Wang, M., Khan, S.A., Xi, L., and Xiao, K. (2022, January 15–17). Degradation Analysis of The Metallized Film Capacitance under Various Conditions in EV Applications. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference & Expo (ITEC), Anaheim, CA, USA.10.1109/ITEC53557.2022.9813850 ↗
95. A comprehensive review on second-life batteries: Current state, manufacturing considerations, applications, impacts, barriers & potential solutions, business strategies, and policies10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2917859 ↗
96. (2022). Optical sensors for operando stress monitoring in lithium-based batteries containing solid-state or liquid electrolytes. Nat. Commun., 13, 1153.