Stray Current-Induced Development of Cement-Based Microstructure in Water-Submerged, Ca(OH)2-Submerged and Sealed Conditions
Source abstract
Abstract
This work reports on the development of microstructural and mechanical properties of mortar cubes under the synergetic action of stray current and various environmental/curing conditions. The study refers to specimens cured for 24h only, followed by a 112 days period of partial or full submersion in water or alkaline medium. Additionally, equally prepared mortar specimens were tested in sealed conditions. The outcomes for submerged and saturated conditions were compared to sealed conditions. Three current density regimes were employed i.e. 1 A/m2, 100 mA/m2, and 10 mA/m2, simulating different levels of stray (DC) current environment. The highest level of 1A/m2 was also comparable to stray current densities, as measured in field conditions. The tests were designed in a way, so that the effects of diffu-sion-controlled transport (ions leaching due to concentration gradients), were distinguished from migration-controlled ones (ion/water transport in stray current conditions). Mechanical, microstructural and electrical properties were moni-tored throughout the test. For water-conditioned specimens, the stray current was found to accelerate degradation pro-cesses. This was reflected by decreased compressive strength, reduced electrical resistivity and increased porosity of the matrix. The results were attributed to leaching-out of alkali ions due to concentration gradients, where except diffusion, migration took place i.e. the leaching-out effect was accelerated by water and ions migration in conditions of stray cur-rent flow. In contrast, stray current flowing through mortar in sealed conditions (as well as through mortar in alkaline medium) resulted in increased compressive strength and electrical resistivity. These were accompanied by densification of the bulk matrix and reduced porosity. It can be concluded that for a cement-based material at early hydration age, both positive and negative effects of stray current flow can be expected. The level and direction of these effects are dependent on the external environment and the current density levels, where stray currents above 100 mA/m2 and in conditions of concentration gradients with the external medium, would lead to more pronounced negative effects on microstructural and micromechanical performance.
Source: openalex_inverted_index · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Concrete and Cement Materials Research · Concrete Corrosion and Durability · Smart Materials for Construction
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Materials and Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands.
The Electronic and Mechanical Support Division (DEMO), Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands.
References (68)
Show source-provided references
1. 1) Alonso, C., Castellote, M., Llorente, I. and Andrade, C., (2006). “Ground water leaching resistance of high and ultrahigh performance concretes in relation to the testing convection regime.” Cement and Concrete Research, 36, 1583-1594.10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.04.004 ↗
2. 2) Aylott, P. J., Cotton, I. and Charalambous, C. A., (2013). “Impact and management of stray current on DC rail systems.” CHAPCIS Intertek, United Kingdom.10.1049/ic.2013.0087 ↗
3. 3) Babaahmadi, A., Tang, L., Abbas, Z., Zack, T. and Martensson, P., (2015). “Development of an electro-chemical accelerated ageing method for leaching of calcium from cementitious materials.” Materials and Structures, 49(1), 705-718.
4. 4) Bediako, M., Kevern, J. T. and Amankwah, E. O., (2015). “Effect of curing environment on the strength properties of cement and cement extenders.” Materials Sciences and Applications, 6, 33-39.10.4236/msa.2015.61005 ↗
5. 5) Bertolini, L., Carsana, M. and Pedeferri, P., (2007). “Corrosion behaviour of steel in concrete in the presence of stray current.” Corrosion Science, 49, 1056-1068.10.1016/j.corsci.2006.05.048 ↗
6. 6) Bredenkamp, S., Kruger, D. and Bredenkamp, G. L. (1993). “Direct electric curing of concrete.” Magazine of Concrete Research, 45(162), 71-74.10.1680/macr.1993.45.162.71 ↗
7. 7) Carde, C., Francois, R. and Torrenti, J. M., (1996). “Leaching of both calcium hydroxide and C-S-H from cement paste: modeling the mechanical behavior.” Cement and Concrete Research, 26(8), 1257-1268.10.1016/0008-8846(96)00095-6 ↗
8. 8) Castellote, M., Andrade, C. and Alonso, C., (1999). “Changes in concrete pore-size distribution due to electrochemical chloride migration trials.” ACI Mater. Journal, 96(3), 314-319.
9. 9) Charalambous, C. A. and Aylott, P., (2014). “Dynamic stray current evaluations on cut-and-cover sections of DC metro systems.” IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 63(8), 3530-3538.10.1109/TVT.2014.2304522 ↗
10. 10) Chen, Z. G., Qin, C. K., Zhang, Y. J. and Tang, J. X., (2011). “Research of impact of stray current from urban rail transit system on buried gas pipeline.” Advanced Material Research, Vols. 239-242, 1219-1222.10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.239-242.1219 ↗
11. 11) Chen, M., Wang, K., Wu, Q. and Qin, Z., (2012). “An experimental corrosion investigation of coupling chloride ions with stray current for reinforce concrete.” Applied Mechanic and Materials, Vols. 166-169, 1987-1993.10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.166-169.1987 ↗
12. 12) Cheng, A., Chao, S. J., Lin, W. T. and Chang, J. L., (2012). “Prediction of the deterioration depth of concrete by accelerating calcium leaching test.” Advanced Materials Research, 365, 3-7.10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.546-547.3 ↗
13. 13) Copeland, L. E. and Hayes, J. C., (1953). “The determination of non-evaporable water in hardened portland cement pastes.” PCA Bulletin 47, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, USA.
14. 14) Copeland, L. E., Kantro, D. L. and Verbeck, G., (1960). “Chemistry of hydration of Portland cement.” PCA Bulletin 153, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, USA.
15. 15) CUR-Bouw&Infra, (2009). “Duurzaamheid van constructief beton met betrekking tot chloride-geïnitieerde wapeningscorrosie - Leidraad voor het formuleren van prestatie-eisen-.” Achtergrondrapport, TU Delft. (in Dutch)
16. 16) Diamond, S. and Leeman, M. E. (1995). “Pore size distributions in hardened cement paste by SEM image analysis.” MRS Proc., 370, 217-226.
17. 17) Faucon, P., Adenot, F., Jacquinot, J. F., Petit, J.C., Cabrillac, R. and Jorda, M. (1998). “Long-term behaviour of cement pastes used for nuclear waste disposal: review of physico-chemical mechanisms of water degradation.” Cement and Concrete Research, 28, 847-857.10.1016/S0008-8846(98)00053-2 ↗
18. 18) Faucon, P., Le Bescop, P., Adenot, F., Bonville, P., Jacquinot, J. F., Pineau, F. and Felix, B., (1996). “Leaching of cement: study of the surface layer.” Cement and Concrete Research, 26, 1707-1715.10.1016/S0008-8846(96)00157-3 ↗
19. 19) Gaitero, J. J., Campillo, I. and Guerrero, A., (2008). “Reduction of the calcium leaching rate of cement paste by addition of silica nanoparticles.” Cement and Concrete Research, 38,1112-1118.10.1016/j.cemconres.2008.03.021 ↗
20. 20) Galsgaard, F. and Nielsen L. V., (2006). “AC/DC interference corrosion in pipelines.” Summary Report by MetriCorr., The Danish Gas Technological Centre.
21. 21) Gawin, D., Pesavento, F. and Schrefler, B. A., (2009). “Modeling deterioration of cementitious materials exposed to calcium leaching in non-isothermal conditions.” Comput. Methods. Appl. Mech. Engrg., 198, 3051–3083.10.1016/j.cma.2009.05.005 ↗
22. 22) Haga, K., Sutou, S., Hironaga, M., Tanaka, S. and Nagasaki, S., (2005). “Effects of porosity on leaching of Ca from hardened ordinary Portland cement paste.” Cement and Concrete Research, 35, 1764-1775.10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.06.034 ↗
23. 23) Hayri, U. N. and Bulent, B., (2011). “The effect of curing temperature and relative humidity on the strength development of Portland cement mortar.” Scientific Research and Essays, 6(12), 2504-2511.
24. 24) Hu, J., (2004). “Porosity of concrete, morphological study of model concrete.” Thesis (PhD), Delft University of Technology.
25. 25) Hu, J. and Stroeven, P., (2003). “Application of image analysis to assessing critical pore size for permeability prediction of cement paste.” Image Anal. Stereol., 22, 97-103.
26. 26) Jain, J. and Neithalath, N., (2009). “Analysis of calcium leaching behavior of plain and modified cement pastes in pure water.” Cement & Concrete Composites, 31,176-185.10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.01.003 ↗
27. 27) Kamali, S., Gerard, B. and Moranville, M., (2003). “Modeling the leaching kinetics of cement based materials-influence of materials and environment.” Cement & Concrete Composites, 25, 451-458.10.1016/S0958-9465(02)00085-9 ↗
28. 28) Kjellsen, K. O., Monsøy, A., Isachsen, K. and Detwiler, R. J., (2003). “Preparation of flat-polished specimens for SEM-backscattered electron imaging and X-ray microanalysis - importance of epoxy impregnation.” Cement and Concrete Research, 33(4), 611-616.10.1016/S0008-8846(02)01029-3 ↗
29. 29) Koleva, D. A., de Wit, J. H. W., van Breugel, K., Veleva, L., van Westing, E. P. M., Copuroglu, O. and Fraaij, A. L. A., (2008). “Correlation of microstructrure, electrical properties and electrochemical phenomena in reinforced mortar. Breakdown to multi-phase interface structures.” Materials Characterization, 59, 801-815.
30. 30) Koleva, D. A., (2007). “Corrosion and protection in reinforced concrete: Pulse cathodic protection: an improved cost-effective alternative.” Thesis (PhD), Delft University of Technology.
31. 31) Kuhl, D., K., Bangert, F. and Meschke, G., (2004). “Coupled chemo-mechanical deteriorationof cementitious materials. Part I: Modeling.” International Journal of Solids and Structures, 41, 15-40.
32. 32) Kumara, R. and Bhattacharjee, B., (2004). “Assessment of permeation quality of concrete through mercury intrusion porosimetry.” Cement and Concrete Research, 34, 321-328.10.1016/j.cemconres.2003.08.013 ↗
33. 33) Lange, D. A., Jennings, H. M. and Shah, S. P., (1994). “Image analysis techniques for characterization of pore structure of cement-based materials.” Cement and Concrete Research, 24(5), 841-853.10.1016/0008-8846(94)90004-3 ↗
34. 34) Laskar, Md. A. I., (1997). “Some aspects of evaluation of concrete through mercury intrusion porosimetry.” Cement and Concrete Research, 27(1), 93-105.10.1016/S0008-8846(96)00192-5 ↗
35. 35) Lingvay, C., Cojocaru, A., Visan, T. and Lingvay, I., (2011). “Degradation of reinforced concrete structures due to DC and AC stray currents.” U.P.B. Sci. Bull., Series B, 73(4), 143-152.
36. 36) Maltais, Y., Samson, E. and Marchand, J., (2004). “Predicting the durability of Portland cement systems in aggressive environments—laboratory validation.” Cement and Concrete Research, 34, 1579-1589.10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.03.029 ↗
37. 37) Marchand, J. and Bentz, D. P., Samson, E. and Maltais, Y., (2000). “Influence of calcium hydroxide dissolution on the transport properties of hydrated cement systems.” In: Workshop on the role of calcium hydroxide in concrete; Holmes Beach, Anna Maria Island, Florida, 113-29.
38. 38) Marinoni, N., Pavese, A., Voltolini, M. and Merlini, M., (2008). “Long-term leaching test in concretes: An X-ray powder diffraction study.” Cement and Concrete Composites, 30(8), 700-705.10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2008.05.004 ↗
39. 39) Mehta, P. K. and Monteiro, P. J. M., (2001). “Concrete Microstructure, Properties and Materials.” Englewood Cliffs, NJ USA, Prentice-Hall Inc.
40. 40) Nehdi and Soliman, (2011) “Early-age properties of concrete: overview of fundamental concepts and state-of-the-art research.” Construction Materials, 164, 57-77.10.1680/coma.900040 ↗
41. 41) Neville, A. M., (1981). “Properties of concrete.” 3rd Ed., London, Pitman.
42. 42) Olson, R. A., Neubauer, C. M. and Jennings, H. M., (1997). “Damage to the pore structure of hardened Portland cement paste by mercury intrusion.” Journal of American Ceramic Society, 80(9), 2454-2458.10.1111/j.1151-2916.1997.tb03144.x ↗
43. 43) Peelen, W. H. A., Neeft, E. A .C., Leegwater, G., van Kanten-Roos, W. and Courage, W. M. G., (2011). “Monitoring DC stray current interference of steel sheet pile structures in railway environment.” HERON, 56(3), 107-122.
44. 44) Puertas, F., Garcia-Diaz, I., Palacios, M., Gazulla, M. F., Gomez, M. P. and Orduna, M., (2010). “Clinkers and cements obtained from raw mix containing ceramic waste as a raw material. Characterization, hydration and leaching studies.” Cement & Concrete Composites, 32, 175-186.10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.11.011 ↗
45. 45) Rafieipour, M. H., Nazari, A., Mohandesi, M. A. and Khalaj, G., (2012). “Improvement incorporating ZrO2 nanoparticles.” Material Research, 15(2), 177-184.10.1590/S1516-14392012005000008 ↗
46. 46) Riskin, J. (2008). “Electrocorrosion and protection of metal: general approach with particular consideration to electrochemical.” 1st Ed, Oxford, Elsevier Science.
47. 47) Roessler, M. and Odler, I., (1985). “Investigations on the relationship between porosity, structure and strength of hydrated portland cement pastes: 1. Effect of porosity.” Cement and Concrete Research, 15(2), 320-330.10.1016/0008-8846(85)90044-4 ↗
48. 48) Ryu, J-S, Otsuki, N. and Minagawa, H., (2002). “Long-term forecast of Ca leaching from mortar and associated degeneration.” Cement and Concrete Research, 32, 1539-1544.10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00830-X ↗
49. 49) Saito, H. and Nakane, S., (1999). “Comparison between diffusion test and electrochemical acceleration test for leaching degradation of cement hydration products.” ACI Materials Journal, 96(2), 208-213.
50. 50) Saito, H., Nakane, S., Ikari, S. and Fujiwara, A., (1992). “Preliminary experimental study on the deterioration of cementitious materials by an acceleration method.” Nuclear Engineering and Design, 138, 151-155.10.1016/0029-5493(92)90290-C ↗
51. 51) Scrivener, K. L., (2004). “Backscattered electron imaging of cementitious microstructures: understanding and quantification.” Cement & Concrete Composites, 26, 935-945.10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2004.02.029 ↗
52. 52) Seidell, A. and Linke, W. F., (1953). “Solubilities of inorganic and metal organic compounds, - A compilation of solubility data from the periodical literature.” New York, Van Nostrand.
53. 53) Serra, J., (1982). “Image analysis and mathematical morphology.” London, Academic Press.
54. 54) Struble, L. J. and Stutzman, P. Z., (1989). “Epoxy impregnation of harden cement for microstructural characterization.” Journal of Materials Science Letters, 8, 632-634.10.1007/BF01730426 ↗
55. 55) Sumanasooriya, M. S. and Neithalath, N., (2009). “Stereology and morphology-based pore structure descriptors of enhanced porosity (previous) concrete.” ACI Materials Journal, 106(5), 429-438.
56. 56) Sun, Z., Ye, G. and Shah, S. P., (2005). “Microstructure and early-age properties of portland cement paste-Effects of connectivity of solid phases.” ACI Materials Journal, 102(2), March-April 2005.
57. 57) Susanto, A., Koleva, D. A., Copuroglu, O., van Beek, K. and van Breugel, K., (2013). “Mechanical, electrical, and microstructural properties of cement-based materials in condition of stray current flow.” Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 11, 119-134.10.3151/jact.11.119 ↗
58. 58) Taylor, H. E. W., (1990). “Cement chemistry.” Academic Press, London.
59. 59) Ulm, F. J., Torrenti, J. M. and Adenot, F., (1999). “Chemoporoplasticity of calcium leaching in concrete.” J. Eng. Mech. (ASCE), 125(10), 1200-1211.10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(1999)125:10(1200) ↗
60. 60) Wang, Y. Q., Li, W., Yang, X. F., Ye, G., Fan, Q. G. and Zhang, L. P., (2010) “Modeling and simulation the distribution of metro stray current.” In: International Conference on Computer Application and System Modelling (ICCASM).10.1109/ICCASM.2010.5619097 ↗
61. 61) Willis, K. L., Abell, A. B. and Lange, D. A., (1998). “Image-based characterization of cement pore structure using Wood's metal intrusion.” Cem. Concr. Res., 28 (12), 1695-1706.10.1016/S0008-8846(98)00159-8 ↗
62. 62) Winslow, D. N. and Diamond, S., (1970). “A mercury porosimetry study of the evolution of porosity in portland cement.” J. Mater., 5(3), 564-585.
63. 63) Wittmann, F. H., (1997). “Corrosion of cement-based materials under the influence of an electric field.” Mater. Sci. Forum, 247,107-126.10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.247.107 ↗
64. 64) Xia, J. and Li, L. Y., (2013). “Numerical simulation of ionic transport in cement paste under the action of externally applied electric field.” Construction and Building Materials, 39, 51-59.10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.05.036 ↗
65. 65) Yang, S. and Yang, X., (2008). “Evaluation of stray current corrosion resistance of concrete in metro construction.” Front. Archit. Civ. Eng. China, 2(3), 246-252.10.1007/s11709-008-0036-4 ↗
66. 66) Ye, G., (2003). “Experimental study and numerical simulation of the development of the microstructure and permeability of cementitious materials.” Thesis (Ph.D.), Delft University of Technology.
67. 67) Ye, G., Hu, J., van Breugel, K. and Stroeven, P., (2002). “Characterization of the development of microstructure and porosity of cement-based materials by numerical simulation and ESEM image analysis.” Materials and Structures, 35, 603-613.10.1007/BF02480353 ↗
68. 68) Young, J. F., (1988). “A review of the pore structure of cement paste and concrete and its influence on permeability.” Permeability of Concrete, 1-18 (ACI SP-108).