3D printing of biodegradable polymer vascular stents to treat cardiovascular diseases: A review

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), the leading cause of mortality worldwide, stem from structural and functional abnormalities in the heart and blood vessels. Although advancements in treatments such as percutaneous coronary intervention and vascular stent implantation have reduced complications, challenges such as restenosis, late thrombosis, and limited customisation remain. Biodegradable polymer vascular stents (BPVSs) have emerged as promising alternatives to traditional metallic stents, offering advantages such as controlled degradation, improved biocompatibility, and reduced late-stage complications. This review examines the integration of 3D printing (3DP) techniques, including material extrusion, vat photopolymerisation, powder bed fusion, material jetting, and binder jetting into BPVS fabrication, highlighting their potential to enhance material properties, manufacturing processes, and clinical applicability. Key topics include material selection, structural design optimisation, and mechanical characterisation of 3DP BPVSs. The review also discusses preclinical evaluations and updated clinical insights, concluding with future research directions, including advanced materials development, innovative structural designs, breakthroughs in high-resolution 3DP techniques, and challenges in regulatory approval and clinical translation. These advancements underscore the potential of 3DP BPVSs to revolutionize personalised CVD treatment.