Power Supply Analysis for a Historical Trolley Battery Trailer with Wireless Charging and Battery Swap Technologies
Source abstract
Abstract
Lithium-ion battery (LIB) wireless charging using inductive power transfer (IPT) represents a transformative pathway for transportation electrification. While applications in railway systems remain limited, early studies highlight significant promises for implementation. This paper presents a hybrid energy-supply framework integrating LIB, inductive battery charging (BC) charging, and battery swapping (BS) to support a 20 km heritage trolley excursion between Belmont and Gastonia, NC. A kinematic simulation was developed to estimate traction energy demand, yielding 56 kWh per trip, or 112 kWh for two daily round trips. Finite element analysis (FEA) was conducted to design an LCL-s compensated 3 kW IPT system. Two transmitter configurations were evaluated: W–I ferrite cores (peak coupling ~0.22) and magnetic concrete slabs (~0.20). Although ferrite offers higher efficiency, magnetic concrete demonstrates superior durability and integration potential. Simulation results indicate that wireless charging alone, whether static or dynamic, is insufficient; similarly, a single daily BS strategy provides only 96 kWh. Seven BC-BS hybridization scenarios were evaluated, showing that mid-day swaps combined with either static or dynamic IPT produce a 12–16 kWh surplus. The most practical approach is a one-pack swap supplemented by uniformly distributed static pads, providing energy neutrality. This hybrid pathway ensures operational sufficiency, structural resilience, and compatibility with heritage rail preservation.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Wireless Power Transfer Systems · Advanced Battery Technologies Research · Energy Harvesting in Wireless Networks
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA
Belmont Trolley Inc., Belmont, NC 29012, USA
Deutsche Bahn, Laguna Niguel, CA 92677, USA
Funding
Federal Railroad Association
References (77)
Show source-provided references
1. Maximizing Decarbonization Benefits of Transportation Electrification in the U.S.10.3390/electricity4010004 ↗
2. Prospects for a Highly Electric Road Transportation Sector in the USA
3. Battery Only Electric Traction for Freight Trains—A Technical and Operational Assessment10.1177/09544097231160613 ↗
4. Operational Verification of Semidynamic Wireless Power Transfer in Light-Rail Transit Systems10.1109/TTE.2024.3390569 ↗
5. Spiryagin, M., Bruni, S., Bosomworth, C., Wolfs, P., and Cole, C. (2021). Rail Vehicle Mechatronics, CRC Press. [1st ed.].10.1201/9781003028994 ↗
6. Lee, G., Kim, M.Y., Lee, C., Jang, D., Lee, B.S., and Kim, J.H. (2021). Electromagnetic Field Tests of a 1-MW Wireless Power Transfer System for Light Rail Transit. Energies, 14.10.3390/en14041171 ↗
7. Barros, L.A.M., Tanta, M., Martins, A.P., Afonso, J.L., and Pinto, J.G. (2020, January 8–10). Opportunities and Challenges of Power Electronics Systems in Future Railway Electrification. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 14th International Conference on Compatibility, Power Electronics and Power Engineering (CPE-POWERENG), Setubal, Portugal.10.1109/CPE-POWERENG48600.2020.9161695 ↗
8. Abdelhamid, E., AbdelSalam, A.K., Massoud, A., and Ahmed, S. (2014, January 1–4). An Enhanced Performance IPT Based Battery Charger for Electric Vehicles Application. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE 23rd International Symposium on Industrial Electronics (ISIE), Istanbul, Turkey.10.1109/ISIE.2014.6864856 ↗
9. Sheng, M.S., Sreenivasan, A.V., Covic, G.A., Wilson, D., and Sharp, B. (2019, January 18–21). Inductive Power Transfer Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles: A New Zealand Case Study. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE PELS Workshop on Emerging Technologies: Wireless Power Transfer (WoW), London, UK.10.1109/WoW45936.2019.9030685 ↗
10. Lee, S.-H., Kim, J.-H., and Lee, J.-H. (2016). Development of a 60 kHz, 180 kW, Over 85% Efficiency Inductive Power Transfer System for a Tram. Energies, 9.10.3390/en9121075 ↗
11. Wang, L., Zhao, T., Chen, S., and Cook, D. (2018, January 13–15). An Inductive Power Transfer System Design for Rail Applications. Proceedings of the IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Long Beach, CA, USA.10.1109/ITEC.2018.8450168 ↗
12. Lin, K., Xu, X., Zhao, T., Chen, S., Braxtan, N., Cook, D., and Ward, D. (2022, January 15–17). Passive Shielding Design of an Inductive Power Transfer System for Railway Applications. Proceedings of the 2022 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Anaheim, CA, USA.10.1109/ITEC53557.2022.9814018 ↗
13. Sun, X., Xu, X., Lin, K., Chen, S.-E., and Zhao, T. (2024, January 19–21). Static and Dynamic Analysis of Wireless Power Transfer for Battery-Electric Locomotives. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Chicago, IL, USA.10.1109/ITEC60657.2024.10598875 ↗
14. A Review of Wireless Power Transfer for Electric Vehicles: Prospects to Enhance Sustainable Mobility10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.07.003 ↗
15. A Critical Review on Wireless Charging for Electric Vehicles10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.027 ↗
16. A Comprehensive Review of Wireless Charging Technologies for Electric Vehicles10.1109/TTE.2017.2771619 ↗
17. Wireless Power Transfer via Strongly Coupled Magnetic Resonances10.1126/science.1143254 ↗
18. Analysis, Experimental Results, and Range Adaptation of Magnetically Coupled Resonators for Wireless Power Transfer10.1109/TIE.2010.2046002 ↗
19. Dynamic Charging-While-Driving Systems for Freight Delivery Services with Electric Vehicles: Traffic and Energy Modelling10.1016/j.trc.2017.04.004 ↗
20. Shibata, S., Wijaya, F.P., and Kondo, K. (2016, January 14–17). A Study on the Transmission Power in Dynamic Contactless Power Transmission. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology (ICIT), Taipei, Taiwan.10.1109/ICIT.2016.7474759 ↗
21. High Misalignment Tolerance in Efficiency of WPT System With Movable Intermediate Coil and Adjustable Frequency10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3117947 ↗
22. An Enhanced Vehicle-to-Vehicle Wireless Power Transfer System for Electric Vehicle Applications Using a Reconfigurable Coil Approach10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3527513 ↗
23. High-Misalignment Tolerant Compensation Topology for ICPT Systems10.1109/TIE.2011.2161055 ↗
24. Ni, X., Long, R., Zhang, L., and Chen, Q. (2020, January 13–15). Optimization of Magnetic Core Structure Based on DD Coils for Electric Vehicle Wireless Charging. Proceedings of the International Conference on Control, Automation, Robotics and Vision, Shenzhen, China.10.1109/ICARCV50220.2020.9305385 ↗
25. Severns, R., and Reduce, E.M.I. (2006). Design of Snubbers for Power Circuits, International Rectifier Corporation.
26. Goldman, A. (2006). Modern Ferrite Technology, Springer. [2nd ed.].
27. Snelling, E.C. (2012). Soft Ferrites: Properties and Applications, Butterworth-Heinemann.
28. Cullity, B.D., and Graham, C.D. (2011). Introduction to Magnetic Materials, Wiley.
29. Dual-Phase-Shift Control Scheme with Current-Stress and Efficiency Optimization for Wireless Power Transfer Systems10.1109/TCSI.2018.2817254 ↗
30. Budhia, M., Covic, G.A., Boys, J.T., and Huang, C.Y. (2011, January 17–22). Development and Evaluation of Single-Sided Flux Couplers for Contactless Electric Vehicle Charging. Proceedings of the IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition, Phoenix, AZ, USA.10.1109/ECCE.2011.6063826 ↗
31. Jang, Y.J., Jeong, S., and Lee, M.S. (2016). Initial Energy Logistics Cost Analysis for Stationary, Quasi-Dynamic, and Dynamic Wireless Charging Systems for Electric Vehicles. Energies, 9.10.3390/en9070483 ↗
32. Economic Analysis of the Dynamic Charging Electric Vehicle10.1109/TPEL.2015.2424712 ↗
33. Development of Electric Propulsion Systems for Light Electric Vehicles10.1109/TII.2011.2158840 ↗
34. Thermal Conductivity of Concrete—A Review10.1016/j.jobe.2018.07.002 ↗
35. Electromagnetic Absorption Enhancement of Concrete Using Metamaterials10.1142/S0217984923500550 ↗
36. Lin, K., Chen, S.-E., Zhao, T., Braxtan, N.L., Sun, X., and Harris, L. (2025). Design of Magnetic Concrete for Inductive Power Transfer System in Rail Applications. Appl. Sci., 15.10.3390/app15094987 ↗
37. Edwards, K.A., and Brake, N.A. (2018). Increasing Concrete Magnetic Permeability with the Addition of Soft Iron Powder and Stainless-Steel Fiber Inclusions. Proceedings of the International Conference on Transportation and Development 2018, American Society of Civil Engineers.10.1061/9780784481561.034 ↗
38. Rickwärtz, J., Stevie, S., Otto, F., Kolb, J., Niedermeier, M., Grajcarek, R., and Hameyer, K. (2023, January 27–29). Electromagnetic Design Aspects of a Dynamic Inductive Power Transfer System Made of Precast Concrete Elements. Proceedings of the 2023 14th International Symposium on Linear Drivers for Industry Applications (LDIA), Hannover, Germany.10.1109/LDIA59564.2023.10297469 ↗
39. Zhang, F., Shen, H., Wang, D., and Xiang, J. (2020). The Wireless Charging Pavement System of Electric Vehicles Based on Block Chain. Proceedings of the 2020 2nd International Conference on Blockchain Technology (ICBCT ’20), Association for Computing Machinery.10.1145/3390566.3391678 ↗
40. Megahed, T.F., Mansour, D.E.A., Nayebare, D., Kotb, M.F., Fares, A., Hameed, I.A., and El-Hussieny, H. (2024). Dynamic Wireless Charging of Electric Vehicles Using PV Units in Highways. World Electr. Veh. J., 15.10.3390/wevj15100463 ↗
41. Sun, X., Lin, K., Zhou, J., Chen, S.-E., Braxtan, N., and Zhao, T. (2024, January 19–21). Optimizing Magnetic Block Structure for Enhanced Coupling Coefficients in Wireless Power Transfer: A Finite Element Analysis Approach. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Chicago, IL, USA.10.1109/ITEC60657.2024.10598958 ↗
42. Properties of a Magnetic Concrete Core Transformer for Application in Wireless Power Transfer Systems10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117041 ↗
43. Tavakoli, R., Echols, A., Pratik, U., Pantic, Z., Pozo, F., Malakooti, A., and Maguire, M. (2017, January 1–5). Magnetizable Concrete Composite Materials for Road-Embedded Wireless Power Transfer Pads. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), Cincinnati, OH, USA.10.1109/ECCE.2017.8096705 ↗
44. Engineering approach to calculate the effective permeability of a composite material with unbiased ferrimagnetic nanoparticles10.1049/iet-map.2016.0593 ↗
45. Properties of NdFeB Magnetic Cement10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.05.010 ↗
46. Evaluation of Wireless Resonant Power Transfer Systems with Human Electromagnetic Exposure Limits
47. Evaluation of Electromagnetic Exposure During 85 kHz Wireless Power Transfer for Electric Vehicles
48. Evaluation of the Induced Electric Field and Compliance Procedure for a Wireless Power Transfer System in an Electrical Vehicle10.1088/0031-9155/58/21/7583 ↗
49. Wen, F., and Huang, X. (2016). Human Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields from Parallel Wireless Power Transfer Systems. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 14.10.3390/ijerph14020157 ↗
50. (2021). Electric Vehicle Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) Systems—Part 1: General Requirements (Standard No. IEC 61980-1:2021).
51. (2020). Wireless Power Transfer for Light-Duty Plug-In/Electric Vehicles and Alignment Methodology (Standard No. SAE J2954:2020).
52. An Improved Magnetic Coupling Resonant Wireless Power Transfer System Based on Ferrite-Nanocrystalline Hybrid Shielding Method10.1002/cta.4280 ↗
53. Design of a Resonant Reactive Shield with Double Coils and a Phase Shifter for Wireless Charging of Electric Vehicles10.1109/TMAG.2014.2360701 ↗
54. Onreabroy, W., Piemsomboon, S., Traikunwaranon, S., Wilaiprajuabsang, N., and Kaewpradap, A. (2025). Enhancing Wireless Power Transfer Efficiency through Innovative Metamaterial Configurations for Electric Vehicles. World Electr. Veh. J., 16.10.3390/wevj16010048 ↗
55. Coil Design and Shielding Methods for a Magnetic Resonant Wireless Power Transfer System10.1109/JPROC.2013.2247551 ↗
56. A Dynamic EV Charging System for Slow Moving Traffic Applications10.1109/TTE.2016.2628796 ↗
57. Design and Implementation of Shaped Magnetic-Resonance-Based Wireless Power Transfer System for Roadway-Powered Moving Electric Vehicles10.1109/TIE.2013.2258294 ↗
58. Primary-Side Power Flow Control of Wireless Power Transfer for Electric Vehicle Charging10.1109/JESTPE.2014.2382569 ↗
59. Modeling and η-α-Pareto Optimization of Inductive Power Transfer Coils for Electric Vehicles10.1109/JESTPE.2014.2311302 ↗
60. Development of a Single-Sided Flux Magnetic Coupler for Electric Vehicle IPT Charging Systems10.1109/TIE.2011.2179274 ↗
61. Enabling Quadruple-D Compensation Coil Integration for Efficient Power Transfer to Receiver in Wireless Power Transfer Systems for EV Charging10.1109/JESTPE.2025.3525594 ↗
62. Merrigan, H., Wu, Y.-H., Shigematsu, K., Yamamoto, M., Imaoka, J., and Lesage-Landry, A. (2024, January 9–13). Optimising Electric Vehicle Wireless Charging Systems Using Neural Networks to Enable Free-Position Parking. Proceedings of the 2024 13th International Conference on Renewable Energy Research and Applications (ICRERA), Nagasaki, Japan.10.1109/ICRERA62673.2024.10815548 ↗
63. Review of Battery Charger Topologies, Charging Power Levels, and Infrastructure for Plug-In Electric and Hybrid Vehicles10.1109/TPEL.2012.2212917 ↗
64. Advances in High-Power Wireless Charging Systems: Overview and Design Considerations10.1109/TTE.2020.3012543 ↗
65. Advances in Wireless Power Transfer Systems for Roadway-Powered Electric Vehicles10.1109/JESTPE.2014.2343674 ↗
66. (2020). Electrically Propelled Road Vehicles—Magnetic Field Wireless Power Transfer—Safety and Interoperability Requirements (Standard No. ISO 19363:2020).
67. (2020). Electric Vehicle Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) Systems (Standard No. IEC 61980 Series).
68. Li, Y., Mai, R., Lin, T., Liu, Y., Li, Y., He, Z., and Yu, J. (2017, January 21–22). Design and Implementation of a Novel WPT System for Railway Applications. Proceedings of the IEEE PELS Workshop on Emerging Technologies: Wireless Power Transfer, Chongqing, China.10.1109/WoW.2017.7959396 ↗
69. Federal Railroad Administration (2020). Passenger Equipment Safety Standards for Heritage Railways, 49 CFR Part 238.
70. Foley, F.J. (2011, January 6–9). The Impact of Electrification on Railway Signalling Systems. Proceedings of the 5th IET Professional Development Course on Railway Electrification Infrastructure and Systems (REIS 2011), London, UK.10.1049/ic.2011.0184 ↗
71. Electric Vehicle Charging Schedule Considering User’s Charging Selection from Economics10.1049/iet-gtd.2019.0154 ↗
72. Success and Challenges in Modernizing Streetcar Systems: Experiences in Melbourne, Australia, and Toronto, Canada10.3141/2006-04 ↗
73. Advancements and Challenges in Electric Vehicle Battery Charging: A Comprehensive Review10.1051/e3sconf/202560100066 ↗
74. Operational and Planning Perspectives on Battery Swapping and Wireless Charging Technologies: A Multidisciplinary Review10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3554336 ↗
75. Single-Train Trajectory Optimization10.1109/TITS.2012.2234118 ↗
76. Electric railway traction: Part 1 Electric traction and DC traction motor drives10.1049/pe:19940105 ↗
77. Xu, X., Wang, L., Lin, K., Zhao, T., Chen, S., Cook, D., and Ward, D. (2021, January 21–25). Design Considerations of an Inductive Power Transfer System for Rail Application. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Chicago, IL, USA.10.1109/ITEC51675.2021.9490168 ↗