Spectral and Spatial Analysis of Plantar Force Distributions Across Foot-Strike Patterns During Treadmill Running
Source abstract
Abstract
Treadmill running gait differs to overland running and is commonly used to evaluate interventions. One challenge is accurately defining strike pattern and related impact kinetics. This study aimed to characterise foot-strike patterns during treadmill running using the spatial distribution of in-shoe plantar forces and to identify differences in impact kinetics through spectral analysis. Low- and high-frequency power components were analysed in heel, midfoot and forefoot strike patterns. No distinct impact peaks were identified in the force traces; however, significant spatial differences were found. Forefoot strikes exhibited lower peak impact force, average loading rate, and high-frequency power spectral density (PSD) components compared to heel and midfoot strikes, with heel also lower than midfoot. Strike pattern classification was derived from spatial force distribution, where >70% posterior and >50% anterior denote heel and forefoot strikes, while midfoot strikes demonstrate a more balanced distribution with >25% in the central zone. These findings support the integration of spatial, force-based classification with frequency-domain analysis to enhance the evaluation of impact attenuation in treadmill-based running interventions.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Lower Extremity Biomechanics and Pathologies · Diabetic Foot Ulcer Assessment and Management · Foot and Ankle Surgery
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, College of Health, Massey University, Palmerston North 4472, New Zealand
References (44)
Show source-provided references
1. Foot strike patterns and collision forces in habitually barefoot versus shod runners10.1038/nature08723 ↗
2. Foot-Strike Pattern and Performance in a Marathon10.1123/ijspp.8.3.286 ↗
3. Reliability of video-based identification of footstrike pattern and video time frame at initial contact in recreational runners10.1016/j.gaitpost.2015.01.029 ↗
4. Nishida, K., Hagio, S., Kibushi, B., Moritani, T., and Kouzaki, M. (2017). Comparison of muscle synergies for running between different foot strike patterns. PLoS ONE, 12.10.1371/journal.pone.0171535 ↗
5. Ground reaction forces in distance running10.1016/0021-9290(80)90033-0 ↗
6. A simple field method to identify foot strike pattern during running10.1016/j.jbiomech.2014.03.002 ↗
7. Leg stiffness and stride frequency in human running10.1016/0021-9290(95)00029-1 ↗
8. Does maximalist footwear lower impact loading during level ground and downhill running?10.1080/17461391.2018.1472298 ↗
9. The effect of muscle stiffness and damping on simulated impact force peaks during running10.1016/S0021-9290(99)00048-2 ↗
10. The influence of running velocity and midsole hardness on external impact forces in heel-toe running10.1016/0021-9290(87)90324-1 ↗
11. Calculation and interpretation of mechanical energy of movement10.1249/00003677-197800060-00006 ↗
12. Three-dimensional kinematic comparison of treadmill and overground running10.1080/14763141.2012.759614 ↗
13. Force treadmill for measuring vertical and horizontal ground reaction forces10.1152/jappl.1998.85.2.764 ↗
14. Is Motorized Treadmill Running Biomechanically Comparable to Overground Running? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cross-Over Studies10.1007/s40279-019-01237-z ↗
15. Force measurements during running on different instrumented treadmills10.1016/j.jbiomech.2018.12.025 ↗
16. Effect of overground vs treadmill running on plantar pressure: Influence of fatigue10.1016/j.gaitpost.2013.04.026 ↗
17. Kluitenberg, B., Bredeweg, S.W., Zijlstra, S., Zijlstra, W., and Buist, I. (2012). Comparison of vertical ground reaction forces during overground and treadmill running. A validation study. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord., 13.10.1186/1471-2474-13-235 ↗
18. Prevalence and factors associated with injuries in recreational runners: A cross-sectional study10.1590/1517-869220202603190923 ↗
19. Impact-Related Ground Reaction Forces Are More Strongly Associated with Some Running Injuries than Others10.1177/0363546520950731 ↗
20. Greater vertical impact loading in female runners with medically diagnosed injuries: A prospective investigation10.1136/bjsports-2015-094579 ↗
21. Effects of Shoe Cushioning upon Ground Reaction Forces in Running10.1055/s-2008-1026043 ↗
22. Running with a minimalist shoe increases plantar pressure in the forefoot region of healthy female runners10.1016/j.jsams.2014.06.007 ↗
23. Kulmala, J.-P., Kosonen, J., Nurminen, J., and Avela, J. (2018). Running in highly cushioned shoes increases leg stiffness and amplifies impact loading. Sci. Rep., 8.10.1038/s41598-018-35980-6 ↗
24. Differences in running biomechanics between a maximal, traditional, and minimal running shoe10.1016/j.jsams.2019.08.008 ↗
25. Biomechanical Differences of Foot-Strike Patterns During Running: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis10.2519/jospt.2015.6019 ↗
26. The ‘heel impact’ force peak during running is neither ‘heel’ nor ‘impact’ and does not quantify shoe cushioning effects10.1080/19424280.2010.542186 ↗
27. Impact shock frequency components and attenuation in rearfoot and forefoot running10.1016/j.jshs.2014.03.004 ↗
28. A comparison of the ground reaction force frequency content during rearfoot and non-rearfoot running patterns10.1016/j.gaitpost.2017.04.037 ↗
29. Lower Extremity Mechanics in Runners with a Converted Forefoot Strike Pattern10.1123/jab.16.2.210 ↗
30. Is the foot striking pattern more important than barefoot or shod conditions in running?10.1016/j.gaitpost.2013.01.030 ↗
31. Macdermid, P.W., Walker, S.J., and Cochrane, D. (2025). The Effects of Cushioning Properties on Parameters of Gait in Habituated Females While Walking and Running. Appl. Sci., 15.10.20944/preprints202411.0549.v2 ↗
32. Renner, K.E., Peebles, A.T., Socha, J.J., and Queen, R.M. (2022). The impact of sampling frequency on ground reaction force variables. J. Biomech., 135.10.1016/j.jbiomech.2022.111034 ↗
33. The use of fast Fourier transform for the estimation of power spectra: A method based on time averaging over short, modified periodograms10.1109/TAU.1967.1161901 ↗
34. Zhuang, Y., Zhou, W., Zeng, Z., Mo, S., and Wang, L. (2025). Influences of footstrike patterns and overground conditions on lower extremity kinematics and kinetics during running: Statistical parametric mapping analysis. PLoS ONE, 20.10.1371/journal.pone.0317853 ↗
35. Forefoot strikers exhibit lower running-induced knee loading than rearfoot strikers10.1249/MSS.0b013e31829efcf7 ↗
36. The Preferred Movement Path Paradigm: Influence of Running Shoes on Joint Movement10.1249/MSS.0000000000001260 ↗
37. The concurrent effects of strike pattern and ground-contact time on running economy10.1016/j.jsams.2013.05.012 ↗
38. Biomechanics of running with rocker shoes10.1016/j.jsams.2016.04.008 ↗
39. Biomechanical factors associated with tibial stress fracture in female runners10.1249/01.mss.0000183477.75808.92 ↗
40. Influence of different midsole foam in advanced footwear technology use on running economy and biomechanics in trained runners10.1111/sms.14526 ↗
41. The effect of shoe type and fatigue on strike index and spatiotemporal parameters of running10.1016/j.gaitpost.2015.04.013 ↗
42. Do Strike Patterns or Shoe Conditions have a Predominant Influence on Foot Loading?10.1515/hukin-2017-0205 ↗
43. Heel–toe running: A new look at the influence of foot strike pattern on impact force10.1016/j.jesf.2014.12.001 ↗
44. Napier, C., Fridman, L., Blazey, P., Tran, N., Michie, T.V., and Schneeberg, A. (2022). Differences in Peak Impact Accelerations Among Foot Strike Patterns in Recreational Runners. Front. Sports Act. Living, 4.10.3389/fspor.2022.802019 ↗