journal article·2025-04-23Open access

TGA-GS: Thermal Geometrically Accurate Gaussian Splatting

Chen Zou, Qingsen Ma, Jia Wang, Rongfeng Lu, Ming Lu, Zhaowei Qu

Applied Sciences· Volume 15· Issue 9

Abstract

Novel view synthesis and 3D reconstruction have been extensively studied. Three-dimensional Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) has gained popularity due to its rapid training and real-time rendering capabilities. However, RGB imaging is highly dependent on ideal illumination conditions. In low-light situations such as at night or in the presence of occlusions, RGB images often suffer from blurred contours or even complete failure in imaging, which severely restricts the application of 3DGS in such scenarios. Thermal imaging technology, on the other hand, serves as an effective complement. Thermal images are solely influenced by heat sources and are immune to illumination conditions. This unique property enables them to clearly identify the contour information of objects in low-light environments. Nevertheless, thermal images exhibit significant limitations in presenting texture details due to their sensitivity to temperature variations rather than surface texture features. To capitalize on the strengths of both, we propose thermal geometrically accurate Gaussian Splatting (TGA-GS), a novel Gaussian Splatting model. TGA-GS is designed to leverage RGB and thermal information to generate high-quality meshes in low-light conditions. Meanwhile, given low-resolution thermal images and low-light RGB images as inputs, our method can generate high-resolution thermal and RGB images from novel viewpoints. Moreover, we also provide a real thermal imaging dataset captured with a handheld thermal infrared camera. This not only enriches the information content of the images but also provides a more reliable data basis for subsequent computer vision tasks in low-light scenarios.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline

Research context

OpenAlex topics: Infrared Target Detection Methodologies · Optical measurement and interference techniques · Satellite Image Processing and Photogrammetry

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

Affiliations

State Key Laboratory of Information Photonics and Optical Communications, School of Science, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China

School of Artificial Intelligence, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China

School of Automation, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou 310018, China

State Key Laboratory of Multimedia Information Processing, School of Computer Science, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China

School of Computer Science (National Pilot Software Engineering School), Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China

Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China

References (100+)

Show source-provided references
1. Nerf: Representing scenes as neural radiance fields for view synthesis10.1145/3503250 ↗
2. 3d gaussian splatting for real-time radiance field rendering10.1145/3592433 ↗
3. Nayar, S., and Narasimhan, S. (1999, January 20–27). Vision in bad weather. Proceedings of the Seventh IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, Kerkyra, Greece.10.1109/ICCV.1999.790306 ↗
4. Flir (2025, April 21). The Ultimate Infrared Handbook for R&D Professionals. Available online: www.flir.com/thg.
5. Tsai, P.F., Liao, C.H., and Yuan, S.M. (2022). Using Deep Learning with Thermal Imaging for Human Detection in Heavy Smoke Scenarios. Sensors, 22.10.3390/s22145351 ↗
6. Thermal cameras and applications: A survey10.1007/s00138-013-0570-5 ↗
7. Infrared machine vision and infrared thermography with deep learning: A review10.1016/j.infrared.2021.103754 ↗
8. Torresan, H., Turgeon, B., Ibarra-Castanedo, C., Hebert, P., and Maldague, X.P. (2004, January 12). Advanced surveillance systems: Combining video and thermal imagery for pedestrian detection. Proceedings of the SPIE Thermosense XXVI, Orlando, FL, USA.10.1117/12.548359 ↗
9. Thermal imaging and its application in defence systems10.1063/1.3643540 ↗
10. Wong, W.K., Tan, P.N., Loo, C.K., and Lim, W.S. (2009, January 3–5). An effective surveillance system using thermal camera. Proceedings of the International Conference on Signal Acquisition and Processing, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.10.1109/ICSAP.2009.12 ↗
11. Yeom, S. (2024). Thermal image tracking for search and rescue missions with a drone. Drones, 8.10.3390/drones8020053 ↗
12. Rudol, P., and Doherty, P. (2008, January 1–8). Human body detection and geolocalization for UAV search and rescue missions using color and thermal imagery. Proceedings of the IEEE Aerospace Conference, Big Sky, Montana.10.1109/AERO.2008.4526559 ↗
13. Rodin, C., de Lima, L., de Alcantara Andrade, F., Haddad, D., Johansen, T., and Storvold, R. (2018, January 8–13). Object classification in thermal images using convolutional neural networks for search and rescue missions with unmanned aerial systems. Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.10.1109/IJCNN.2018.8489465 ↗
14. Real-time monitoring and postprocessing of thermal infrared video images for sampling and mapping groundwater discharge10.1029/2022WR033630 ↗
15. Fuentes, S., Tongson, E., and Gonzalez Viejo, C. (2021). Urban green infrastructure monitoring using remote sensing from integrated visible and thermal infrared cameras mounted on a moving vehicle. Sensors, 21.10.3390/s21010295 ↗
16. Aerial infrared thermography in the surface waters contamination monitoring10.5004/dwt.2010.1988 ↗
17. Pyykonen, P., Peussa, P., Kutila, M., and Fong, K.W. (2016, January 8–10). Multi-camera-based smoke detection and traffic pollution analysis system. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Computer Communication and Processing (ICCP), Cluj-Napoca, Romania.10.1109/ICCP.2016.7737152 ↗
18. Fuentes, S., Tongson, E.J., De Bei, R., Gonzalez Viejo, C., Ristic, R., Tyerman, S., and Wilkinson, K. (2019). Non-invasive tools to detect smoke contamination in grapevine canopies, berries and wine: A remote sensing and machine learning modeling approach. Sensors, 19.10.3390/s19153335 ↗
19. Kim, H., Lamichhane, N., Kim, C., and Shrestha, R. (2023). Innovations in Building Diagnostics and Condition Monitoring: A Comprehensive Review of Infrared Thermography Applications. Buildings, 13.10.3390/buildings13112829 ↗
20. De Luis-Ruiz, J., Sedano-Cibrian, J., Perez-Alvarez, R., Pereda-Garcia, R., and Salas-Menocal, R. (2023). Generation of 3D Thermal Models for the Analysis of Energy Efficiency in Buildings. Advances in Design Engineering III, Springer.10.1007/978-3-031-20325-1_57 ↗
21. Infrared thermography in the built environment: A multi-scale review10.1016/j.rser.2022.112540 ↗
22. A scoping review of non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques in building performance diagnostic inspections10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120542 ↗
23. Malhotra, V., and Carino, N. (2004). CRC Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, CRC Press.10.1201/9781420040050 ↗
24. Jackson, C., Sherlock, C., and Moore, P. (1998). Leak Testing. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, American Society for Nondestructive Testing.
25. Photogrammetric 3D building reconstruction from thermal images
26. Assessment for crop water stress with infrared thermal imagery in precision agriculture: A review and future prospects for deep learning applications10.1016/j.compag.2021.106019 ↗
27. Remote sensing image fusion on 3D scenarios: A review of applications for agriculture and forestry
28. Remote sensing of bark beetle damage in urban forests at individual tree level using a novel hyperspectral camera from UAV and aircraft10.1016/j.ufug.2018.01.010 ↗
29. Miyoshi, G.T., Arruda, M.S., Osco, L.P., Marcato Junior, J., Goncalves, D.N., Imai, N.N., Tommaselli, A.M.G., Honkavaara, E., and Goncalves, W.N. (2020). A novel deep learning method to identify single tree species in UAV-based hyperspectral images. Remote Sens., 12.10.3390/rs12081294 ↗
30. Lee, S., Moon, H., Choi, Y., and Yoon, D.K. (2018). Analyzing thermal characteristics of urban streets using a thermal imaging camera: A case study on commercial streets in Seoul, Korea. Sustainability, 10.10.3390/su10020519 ↗
31. Carrasco-Benavides, M., Antunez-Quilobran, J., Baffico-Hernandez, A., Avila-Sanchez, C., Ortega-Farias, S., Espinoza, S., Gajardo, J., Mora, M., and Fuentes, S. (2020). Performance assessment of thermal infrared cameras of different resolutions to estimate tree water status from two cherry cultivars: An alternative to midday stem water potential and stomatal conductance. Sensors, 20.10.3390/s20123596 ↗
32. Early diagnosis of vegetation health from high-resolution hyperspectral and thermal imagery: Lessons learned from empirical relationships and radiative transfer modelling10.1007/s40725-019-00096-1 ↗
33. Application of infrared thermography for irrigation scheduling of horticulture plants10.1016/j.atech.2021.100021 ↗
34. Fault diagnosis of electric impact drills using thermal imaging10.1016/j.measurement.2020.108815 ↗
35. Medical applications of infrared thermography: A review10.1016/j.infrared.2012.03.007 ↗
36. A prospective study comparing the FLIR ONE with laser Doppler imaging in the assessment of burn depth by a tertiary burns unit in the United Kingdom10.1177/2059513120974261 ↗
37. The FLIR ONE thermal imager for the assessment of burn wounds: Reliability and validity study10.1016/j.burns.2017.04.006 ↗
38. KAIST Multi-Spectral Day/Night Data Set for Autonomous and Assisted Driving10.1109/TITS.2018.2791533 ↗
39. ViViD++: Vision for visibility dataset10.1109/LRA.2022.3168335 ↗
40. Farooq, M.A., Shariff, W., Khan, F., Corcoran, P., and Rotariu, C. (2025, April 21). C3I Thermal Automotive Dataset, Available online: https://ieee-dataport.org/documents.
41. Hwang, S., Park, J., Kim, N., Choi, Y., and Kweon, I. (2015, January 7–12). Multispectral Pedestrian Detection: Benchmark Dataset and Baseline. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), Boston, MA, USA.10.1109/CVPR.2015.7298706 ↗
42. Berg, A., Ahlberg, J., and Felsberg, M. (2015, January 12–14). A thermal infrared dataset for evaluation of short-term tracking methods. Proceedings of the Swedish Symposium on Image Analysis, Copenhagen, Denmark.
43. Kopaczka, M., Kolk, R., and Merhof, D. (2018, January 14–17). A fully annotated thermal face database and its application for thermal facial expression recognition. Proceedings of the IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC), Houston, TX, USA.10.1109/I2MTC.2018.8409768 ↗
44. Cho, Y., Bianchi-Berthouze, N., Marquardt, N., and Julier, S. (2018, January 21–26). Deep Thermal Imaging: Proximate Material Type Recognition in the Wild through Deep Learning of Spatial Surface Temperature Patterns. Proceedings of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Montreal, QC, Canada.10.1145/3173574.3173576 ↗
45. Vertens, J., Zürn, J., and Burgard, W. (2020). HeatNet: Bridging the Day-Night Domain Gap in Semantic Segmentation with Thermal Images. arXiv.10.1109/IROS45743.2020.9341192 ↗
46. Dai, W., Zhang, Y., Chen, S., Sun, D., and Kong, D. (2021). A Multi-spectral Dataset for Evaluating Motion Estimation Systems. arXiv.10.1109/ICRA48506.2021.9561906 ↗
47. M2DGR: A Multi-sensor and Multi-scenario SLAM Dataset for Ground Robots10.1109/LRA.2021.3138527 ↗
48. A mask-based approach for the geometric calibration of thermal-infrared cameras10.1109/TIM.2012.2182851 ↗
49. Large-scale benchmark for uncooled infrared image deblurring10.1109/JSEN.2023.3327413 ↗
50. Single infrared image enhancement using a deep convolutional neural network10.1016/j.neucom.2018.11.081 ↗
51. A general framework for image fusion based on multi-scale transform and sparse representation10.1016/j.inffus.2014.09.004 ↗
52. Cross-modality person re-identification via multi-task learning10.1016/j.patcog.2022.108653 ↗
53. Poggi, M., Ramirez, P.Z., Tosi, F., Salti, S., Mattoccia, S., and Stefano, L.D. (2022, January 12–15). Cross-spectral Neural Radiance Fields. Proceedings of the International Conference on 3D Vision (3DV), Prague, Czech Republic.10.1109/3DV57658.2022.00071 ↗
54. Ye, T., Wu, Q., Deng, J., Liu, G., Liu, L., Xia, S., and Pei, L. (2024, January 14–18). Thermal-nerf: Neural radiance fields from an infrared camera. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.10.1109/IROS58592.2024.10802480 ↗
55. Hassan, M., Forest, F., Fink, O., and Mielle, M. (2024). Thermonerf: Multimodal neural radiance fields for thermal novel view synthesis. arXiv.
56. Lin, Y., Pan, X., Fridovich-Keil, S., and Wetzstein, G. (2024, January 22–24). ThermalNeRF: Thermal Radiance Fields. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE International Conference on Computational Photography (ICCP), Lausanne, Switzerland.10.1109/ICCP61108.2024.10644336 ↗
57. Zhong, C., and Xu, C. (2024). TeX-NeRF: Neural Radiance Fields from Pseudo-TeX Vision. arXiv.
58. Xu, J., Liao, M., Kathirvel, R., and Patel, V. (October, January 29). Leveraging Thermal Modality to Enhance Reconstruction in Low-Light Conditions. Proceedings of the European Conference on Computer Vision, Milan, Italy.
59. Chopra, S., Cladera, F., Murali, V., and Kumar, V. (2024). AgriNeRF: Neural Radiance Fields for Agriculture in Challenging Lighting Conditions. arXiv.
60. Özer, M., Weiherer, M., Hundhausen, M., and Egger, B. (2024). Exploring Multi-modal Neural Scene Representations With Applications on Thermal Imaging. arXiv.
61. Chen, Q., Shu, S., and Bai, X. (October, January 29). Thermal3D-GS: Physics-induced 3D Gaussians for Thermal Infrared Novel-view Synthesis. Proceedings of the European Conference on Computer Vision, Milan, Italy.
62. Lu, R., Chen, H., Zhu, Z., Qin, Y., Lu, M., Zhang, L., Yan, C., and Xue, A. (2024). ThermalGaussian: Thermal 3D Gaussian Splatting. arXiv.
63. Liu, Y., Chen, X., Yan, S., Cui, Z., Xiao, H., Liu, Y., and Zhang, M. (2025). ThermalGS: Dynamic 3D Thermal Reconstruction with Gaussian Splatting. Remote Sens., 17.10.3390/rs17020335 ↗
64. Yang, K., Liu, Y., Cui, Z., Liu, Y., Zhang, M., Yan, S., and Wang, Q. (2025). NTR-Gaussian: Nighttime Dynamic Thermal Reconstruction with 4D Gaussian Splatting Based on Thermodynamics. arXiv.
65. On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum
66. Stefan, J., and Ebel, J. (2025, April 21). Kommentierter Neusatz von Uber die Beziehung Zwischen der Wärmestrahlung und der Temperatur. Available online: https://scholar.google.com.hk/scholar?hl=zh-CN&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Kommentierter+Neusatz+von+Uber+die+Beziehung+Zwischen+der+Wärmestrahlung+und+der+Temperatur.&btnG=.
67. Rogalski, A. (2000). Infrared Detectors, CRC Press.10.1201/9781420022506 ↗
68. Adan, A., Quintana, B., Aguilar, J.G., Pérez, V., and Castilla, F.J. (2020). Towards the Use of 3D Thermal Models in Constructions. Sustainability, 12.10.3390/su12208521 ↗
69. Grechi, G., Fiorucci, M., Marmoni, G.M., and Martino, S. (2021). 3D Thermal Monitoring of Jointed Rock Masses Through Infrared Thermography and Photogrammetry. Remote Sens., 13.10.3390/rs13050957 ↗
70. Schmidt, R. (2025, March 13). How Patent-Pending Technology Blends Thermal and Visible Light. Available online: https://www.fluke.com/en/learn/blog/thermal-imaging/how-patent-pending-technology-blends-thermal-and-visible-light.
71. Bao, F., Jape, S., Schramka, A., Wang, J., McGraw, T.E., and Jacob, Z. (2023). Why Are Thermal Images Blurry. arXiv.10.1364/OE.506634 ↗
72. Zhang, H., Hu, Y., and Yan, M. (2023). Thermal Image Super-Resolution Based on Lightweight Dynamic Attention Network for Infrared Sensors. Sensors, 23.10.3390/s23218717 ↗
73. 3D Reconstruction from IR Thermal Images and Reprojective Evaluations
74. Visible/Infrared Combined 3D Reconstruction Scheme Based on Nonrigid Registration of Multi-Modality Images with Mixed Features10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2895905 ↗
75. 3D Scene Reconstruction from IR Image Sequences for Image-Based Navigation Update and Target Detection of an Autonomous Airborne System
76. Schonberger, J., and Frahm, J. (2016, January 27–30). Structure-from-Motion Revisited. Proceedings of the Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), Las Vegas, NV, USA.10.1109/CVPR.2016.445 ↗
77. Robertson, D., and Cipolla, R. (2009). Practical Image Processing and Computer Vision. Chapter Structure from Motion, John Wiley & Sons.
78. Schonberger, J., Zheng, E., Pollefeys, M., and Frahm, J. (2016, January 11–14). Pixelwise view selection for unstructured multi-view stereo. Proceedings of the European Conference on Computer Vision (ECCV), Amsterdam, The Netherlands.10.1007/978-3-319-46487-9_31 ↗
79. Cheng, Z., Esteves, C., Jampani, V., Kar, A., Maji, S., and Makadia, A. (2023). Lu-Nerf: Scene and Pose Estimation by Synchronizing Local Unposed Nerfs. arXiv.10.1109/ICCV51070.2023.01679 ↗
80. Multi-View Stereo: A Tutorial10.1561/0600000052 ↗
81. Wang, S., Jiang, H., and Xiang, L. (February, January 29). CT-MVSnet: Efficient Multi-View Stereo with Cross-Scale Transformer. Proceedings of the International Conference on Multimedia Modeling, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
82. Mildenhall, B., Hedman, P., Martin-Brualla, R., Srinivasan, P., and Barron, J. (2022, January 18–24). NeRF in the dark: High dynamic range view synthesis from noisy raw images. Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, New Orleans, LA, USA.10.1109/CVPR52688.2022.01571 ↗
83. Cui, Z.T., Gu, L., Sun, X., Ma, X.Z., Qiao, Y., and Harada, T. (2023). Aleth-Nerf: Low-Light Condition View Synthesis with Concealing Fields. arXiv.
84. Martin-Brualla, R., Radwan, N., Sajjadi, M., Barron, J., Dosovitskiy, A., and Duckworth, D. (2021, January 20–25). Nerf in the wild: Neural radiance fields for unconstrained photo collections. Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Nashville, TN, USA.10.1109/CVPR46437.2021.00713 ↗
85. Wang, P., Liu, L., Liu, Y., Theobalt, C., Komura, T., and Wang, W. (2021). Neus: Learning neural implicit surfaces by volume rendering for multi-view reconstruction. arXiv.
86. Zeng, Y.J., Lei, J., Feng, T.M., Qin, X.Y., Li, B., Wang, Y.Q., Wang, D.X., and Song, J. (2023). Neural Radiance Fields-Based 3D Reconstruction of Power Transmission Lines Using Progressive Motion Sequence Images. Sensors, 23.10.3390/s23239537 ↗
87. Zhu, H., Sun, Y., Liu, C., Xia, L., Luo, J., Qiao, N., Nevatia, R., and Kuo, C. (June, January 29). Multimodal Neural Radiance Field. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), London, UK.
88. Wang, B.J., Zhang, D.H., Su, Y.X., and Zhang, H.J. (2024). Enhancing View Synthesis with Depth-Guided Neural Radiance Fields and Improved Depth Completion. Sensors, 24.10.3390/s24061919 ↗
89. Yu, Z., Chen, A., Huang, B., Sattler, T., and Geiger, A. (2024, January 16–22). Mip-splatting: Alias-free 3d gaussian splatting. Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Seattle, WA, USA.10.1109/CVPR52733.2024.01839 ↗
90. Zou, C., Ma, Q., Wang, J., Lu, M., Zhang, S., and He, Z. (2025, January 6–11). Gaussianenhancer: A General Rendering Enhancer for Gaussian Splatting. Proceedings of the ICASSP 2025–2025 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP), Hyderabad, India.10.1109/ICASSP49660.2025.10888633 ↗
91. Zou, C., Ma, Q., Wang, J., Lu, M., Zhang, S., Qu, Z., and He, Z. (2025). Gaussianenhancer++: A General GS-Agnostic Rendering Enhancer. Symmetry, 17.10.3390/sym17030442 ↗
92. Lu, T., Yu, M., Xu, L., Xiangli, Y., Wang, L., Lin, D., and Dai, B. (2024, January 16–22). Scaffold-gs: Structured 3d gaussians for view-daptive rendering. Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Seattle, WA, USA.10.1109/CVPR52733.2024.01952 ↗
93. Guédon, A., and Lepetit, V. (2024, January 16–22). Sugar: Surface-aligned gaussian splatting for efficient 3d mesh reconstruction and high-quality mesh rendering. Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Seattle, WA, USA.10.1109/CVPR52733.2024.00512 ↗
94. Huang, B., Yu, Z., Chen, A., Geiger, A., and Gao, S. (2024). 2d gaussian splatting for geometrically accurate radiance fields. SIGGRAPH 2024 Conference Papers, Association for Computing Machinery.10.1145/3641519.3657428 ↗
95. Zhang, B., Fang, C., Shrestha, R., Liang, Y., Long, X., and Tan, P. (2024). Rade-gs: Rasterizing depth in gaussian splatting. arXiv.
96. Rangelov, D., Waanders, S., Waanders, K., van Keulen, M., and Miltchev, R. (2024). Impact of camera settings on 3D Reconstruction quality: Insights from NeRF and Gaussian Splatting. Sensors, 24.10.20944/preprints202410.2041.v1 ↗
97. Gaussian in the Dark: Real-Time View Synthesis From Inconsistent Dark Images Using Gaussian Splatting10.1111/cgf.15213 ↗
98. Direct spray-coating of highly robust and transparent Ag nanowires for energy saving windows10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.04.071 ↗
99. A dual-mode textile for human body radiative heating and cooling10.1126/sciadv.1700895 ↗
100. Image quality assessment: From error visibility to structural similarity10.1109/TIP.2003.819861 ↗