Impact of Delayed Artificial Aging on Tensile Properties and Microstructural Evolution of Directed Energy Deposited Scalmalloy®
Source abstract
Abstract
Scalmalloy® is a novel alloy designed to work with the unique processing inherent in additive manufacturing (AM). This alloy is post-processed using a single artificial aging treatment rather than a multistep heat treatment, as often noted in traditional manufacturing processes. Much of the literature details the impact of direct aging treatments around the temperature and time recommended by the manufacturer, 325 °C for 4 h; however, few studies have explored the impact of delayed artificial aging on the resulting mechanical and microstructural behavior. This study explored this missing link and determined the impact that the time between the fabrication of the component and artificial aging has on the final properties. For this study, directed energy deposition (DED) was utilized to fabricate Scalmalloy® components. Post-processing via artificial aging was performed after fabrication to yield samples naturally aged for 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 days. Samples were subsequently aged at 325 °C for 4 h. Tensile testing determined that natural aging negatively impacts tensile strengths. After 6 days of delayed artificial aging (6 NA), the yield strength (YS) and tensile strength (TS) relative to day 0 (0 NA) case were diminished by 10% and 8.6%, respectively. After 12 days (12 NA), even greater property decreases were noted, with a 23% decrease in YS and an 18% decrease in TS. Microstructural characterization was performed and an increase in precipitate size and decrease in precipitate number coupled with increased grain sizes were theorized to be linked to the decrease in tensile properties. The negative impact of delayed artificial aging after AM fabrication for Scalmalloy® highlights the importance of fast transitions from deposition to heat treatment.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Additive Manufacturing Materials and Processes · Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technologies · High Entropy Alloys Studies
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO 65409, USA
Funding
DoEdu GAANN · NSF CMMI · NSF EEC · Product Innovation and Engineering, LLC
References (62)
Show source-provided references
1. Gupta, K. (2019). Laser Additive Manufacturing Processes for Near Net Shape Components. Near Net Shape Manufacturing Processes, Springer International Publishing.10.1007/978-3-030-10579-2 ↗
2. Gupta, K., Salonitis, K., and Davim, P.J. (2021). The benefits of additive manufacturing for sustainable design and production. Handbooks in Advanced Manufacturing, Elsevier.
3. Metal Additive Manufacturing for the Rapid Prototyping of Shaped Parts: A Case Study10.14733/cadaps.2021.1061-1079 ↗
4. Martof, A., Gullapalli, R., Kelly, J., Rea, A., Lamoncha, B., Walker, J., Conner, B., and Macdonald, E. (2018, January 13–15). Economies of Complexity of 3D Printed Sand Molds for Casting. Proceedings of the Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, Austin, TX, USA.
5. Liou, F.W. (2019). Rapid Prototyping and Engineering Applications: A Toolbox for Prototype Development, CRC Press. [2nd ed.].10.1201/9780429029721 ↗
6. Challenges and opportunities to integrate the oldest and newest manufacturing processes: Metal casting and additive manufacturing10.1108/RPJ-10-2019-0277 ↗
7. Vafadar, A., Guzzomi, F., Rassau, A., and Hayward, K. (2021). Advances in Metal Additive Manufacturing: A Review of Common Processes, Industrial Applications, and Current Challenges. Appl. Sci., 11.10.3390/app11031213 ↗
8. An overview of modern metal additive manufacturing technology10.1016/j.jmapro.2022.10.060 ↗
9. Additive manufacturing of titanium-based alloys—A review of methods, properties, challenges, and prospects10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09041 ↗
10. Fleißner-Rieger, C., Pfeifer, T., Turk, C., and Clemens, H. (2022). Optimization of the Post-Process Heat Treatment Strategy for a Near-α Titanium Base Alloy Produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion. Materials, 15.10.3390/ma15031032 ↗
11. The effect of lack-of-fusion porosity on fatigue behavior of additive manufactured titanium alloy10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.723.44 ↗
12. Additive manufacturing of ultrafine-grained high-strength titanium alloys10.1038/s41586-019-1783-1 ↗
13. Simultaneously enhanced strength and ductility for 3D-printed stainless steel 316L by selective laser melting10.1038/s41427-018-0018-5 ↗
14. Additively manufactured hierarchical stainless steels with high strength and ductility10.1038/nmat5021 ↗
15. On the fatigue crack growth behavior in 316 L stainless steel manufactured by selective laser melting10.1016/j.engfracmech.2014.03.008 ↗
16. Additive manufacturing of steels: A review of achievements and challenges10.1007/s10853-020-05109-0 ↗
17. Selective laser melting of AlSi10 Mg: Influence of process parameters on Mg2Si precipitation and Si spheroidization10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.04.298 ↗
18. Evolution of microstructure in laser deposited Al–11.28%Si alloy10.1016/j.surfcoat.2011.09.051 ↗
19. Process and Mechanical Properties: Applicability of a Scandium modified Al-alloy for Laser Additive Manufacturing10.1016/j.phpro.2011.03.047 ↗
20. A comparative investigation on the microstructure and mechanical properties of additively manufactured aluminum alloys10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2021.106165 ↗
21. Failure predictions in warm forming of 7075-T6 aluminum structural parts10.1088/1757-899X/418/1/012024 ↗
22. Advanced High-Strength Aluminum-Base Materials10.1007/s11041-005-0066-7 ↗
23. Challenges in additive manufacturing of high-strength aluminium alloys and current developments in hybrid additive manufacturing
24. 3D printing of high-strength aluminium alloys10.1038/nature23894 ↗
25. Review of high-strength aluminium alloys for additive manufacturing by laser powder bed fusion10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110779 ↗
26. Koutny, D., Palousek, D., Pantelejev, L., Hoeller, C., Pichler, R., Tesicky, L., and Kaiser, J. (2018). Influence of Scanning Strategies on Processing of Aluminum Alloy EN AW 2618 Using Selective Laser Melting. Materials, 11.10.3390/ma11020298 ↗
27. Influence of process parameters on the quality of aluminium alloy EN AW 7075 using selective laser melting (SLM)10.1016/j.phpro.2016.08.096 ↗
28. Microstructure and mechanical properties of Zr-modified aluminum alloy 5083 manufactured by laser powder bed fusion
29. Aversa, A., Marchese, G., Saboori, A., Bassini, E., Manfredi, D., Biamino, S., Ugues, D., Fino, P., and Lombardi, M. (2019). New Aluminum Alloys Specifically Designed for Laser Powder Bed Fusion: A Review. Materials, 12.10.3390/ma12071007 ↗
30. Awd, M., Tenkamp, J., Hirtler, M., Siddique, S., Bambach, M., and Walther, F. (2017). Comparison of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Scalmalloy® Produced by Selective Laser Melting and Laser Metal Deposition. Materials, 11.10.3390/ma11010017 ↗
31. Boillat-Newport, R., Isanaka, S.P., Kelley, J., and Liou, F. (2024). Heat Treatments for Minimization of Residual Stresses and Maximization of Tensile Strengths of Scalmalloy® Processed via Directed Energy Deposition. Materials, 17.10.3390/ma17061333 ↗
32. Comparison of powder bed fusion and directed energy deposition for tailoring mechanical properties of traditionally brittle alloys
33. Effect of the heat treatment on the mechanical properties and microstructure of Scalmalloy® manufactured by Selective Laser Melting (SLM) under certified conditions10.1016/j.matchar.2022.112549 ↗
34. (2024, June 06). Carpenter Additive Scalmalloy Datasheet. Available online: https://www.carpenteradditive.com/hubfs/Resources/Data%20Sheets/Scalmalloy_Datasheet.pdf.
35. Kuo, C.N., Peng, P.C., Liu, D.H., and Chao, C.Y. (2021). Microstructure evolution and mechanical property response of 3d-printed scalmalloy with different heat-treatment times at 325 °C. Metals, 11.10.3390/met11040555 ↗
36. Perander, L. (2021). Effect of Heat Treatment on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of LB-PBF AlSi10Mg and Scalmalloy. Light Metals 2021, Springer International Publishing.
37. SLM-processed Sc- and Zr- modified Al-Mg alloy: Mechanical properties and microstructural effects of heat treatment10.1016/j.msea.2017.06.089 ↗
38. Natural-ageing-enhanced precipitation near grain boundaries in high-strength aluminum alloy10.1016/j.jmst.2019.11.035 ↗
39. The T6 Heat Treatment of SemiSolid Metal Processed Alloy A356. Open Mater
40. The influence of Mg/Si ratio on the negative natural aging effect in Al–Mg–Si–Cu alloys10.1016/j.msea.2015.06.090 ↗
41. Influence of prolonged natural aging followed by artificial aging on tensile properties and compressive behavior of a thin-walled 6005 aluminum alloy tube10.1007/s11771-021-4799-2 ↗
42. Tai, C.-L., Tai, P.-J., Hsiao, T.-J., Chiu, P.-H., Tseng, C.-Y., Tsao, T.-C., Chung, T.-F., Yang, Y.-L., Chen, C.-Y., and Wang, S.-H. (2022). Effect of Natural Ageing on Subsequent Artificial Ageing of AA7075 Aluminum Alloy. Metals, 12.10.3390/met12101766 ↗
43. Influence of natural aging and pre-treatment on the precipitation and age-hardening behavior of Al-1.0Mg-0.65Si-0.24Cu alloy10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.10.005 ↗
44. Boillat, R., Isanaka, S.P., and Liou, F. (2021). The Effect of Nanostructures in Aluminum Alloys Processed Using Additive Manufacturing on Microstructural Evolution and Mechanical Performance Behavior. Crystals, 11.10.3390/cryst11050524 ↗
45. A Comparative Study on Representativeness and Stochastic Efficacy of Miniature Tensile Specimen Testing10.1520/MPC20210136 ↗
46. Multiscale Data Driven Methodology for Accelerating Qualification and Certification of Additively Manufactured Parts
47. Precipitation strengthening mechanisms during natural ageing and subsequent artificial aging in an Al-Mg-Si-Cu alloy10.1016/j.msea.2018.03.006 ↗
48. Microstructural features of Sc- and Zr-modified Al-Mg alloys processed by selective laser melting10.1016/j.matdes.2016.11.040 ↗
49. Martucci, A., Aversa, A., Manfredi, D., Bondioli, F., Biamino, S., Ugues, D., Lombardi, M., and Fino, P. (2022). Low-Power Laser Powder Bed Fusion Processing of Scalmalloy®. Materials, 15.10.3390/ma15093123 ↗
50. Precipitate Agglomeration Mechanism
51. The influence of temperature and storage time at RT on nucleation of the β″ phase in a 6082 Al–Mg–Si alloy10.1016/S1359-6454(02)00470-6 ↗
52. Loss in coherency and coarsening behavior of Al3Sc precipitates10.1016/j.actamat.2003.09.042 ↗
53. Kinetics and mechanisms of precipitation in an Al–0.2wt.% Sc alloy10.1016/j.msea.2005.02.015 ↗
54. Precipitation strengthening of aluminum alloys by room-temperature cyclic plasticity10.1126/science.aav7086 ↗
55. Effect of quenching residual stress on precipitation behaviour of 7085 aluminium alloy10.1016/j.jmst.2022.06.010 ↗
56. Stress Induced Precipitation during Quenching of Aluminium Alloys10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.877.159 ↗
57. Residual stress in laser-based directed energy deposition of aluminum alloy 2024: Simulation and validation10.1007/s00170-021-07988-2 ↗
58. Heat treatment of aluminium alloys produced by laser powder bed fusion: A review10.1016/j.matdes.2021.109651 ↗
59. Selective laser melting of high-strength primary AlSi9Cu3 alloy: Processability, microstructure, and mechanical properties10.1016/j.matdes.2020.108581 ↗
60. Additive manufacturing of metals: A brief review of the characteristic microstructures and properties of steels, Ti-6Al-4V and high-entropy alloys10.1080/14686996.2017.1361305 ↗
61. Precipitation kinetics, microstructure evolution and mechanical behavior of a developed Al–Mn–Sc alloy fabricated by selective laser melting10.1016/j.actamat.2020.04.015 ↗
62. Formation and reversion of clusters during natural aging and subsequent artificial aging in an Al-Mg-Si alloy10.1016/j.msea.2015.02.035 ↗