Evaluation of Toxic Element Contamination Levels in the Environment of the Republic of Croatia Under Different Anthropogenic Influences

Human activities inevitably affect natural ecosystems, the impact of which most often refers to negative factors resulting in the accumulation of toxic elements in environmental components. This study quantified the presence of 12 toxic elements (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, As, and Se) in water, soil, and six melliferous plant species across the Republic of Croatia. Sampling sites were classified into four groups according to the dominant anthropogenic impact: agricultural areas, urban and traffic-affected zones, industrial vicinities, and forested hill regions. The results demonstrate the transfer of toxic elements from abiotic matrices into plants, indicating their potential as bioaccumulators. Soil contamination with toxic metals was identified as a relevant ecological risk factor, while contamination of melliferous plants highlights potential implications for human health through the production of honeybee-derived products. Element concentrations in water and soil were determined using three atomic absorption spectrometry techniques (FAAS, GFAAS, and CVAAS), whereas concentrations in floral samples of melliferous plants were measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP MS). The obtained results were interpreted in relation to natural background levels and the current national legislation. Anthropogenic impacts were further evaluated using environmental quality indices and bioaccumulation factors, revealing site-specific contamination patterns of both natural and anthropogenic origin.