journal article·2026-01-22Open access

Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning-Based Methods and Devices for Measuring Vital Signs: A Systematic Review

César Castrejón-Peralta, Jesús Yaljá Montiel-Pérez, Saulo Abraham Gante-Díaz, Jonathan Axel Cruz-Vazquez, Abel Alejandro Rubín-Alvarado, Zayra Reyes-Vera, Juan Manuel Torres-Delgadillo, Juan Humberto Sossa-Azuela, Osslan Osiris Vergara-Villegas, Vianey Guadalupe Cruz-Sánchez

Applied Sciences· Volume 16· Issue 2

Abstract

Measuring vital signs can reveal the state of body functioning and help to detect a health problem. In the state-of-the-art, numerous methods and devices are available for measuring vital signs. However, with the advent of artificial intelligence, new methods have been proposed that employ this technology. This paper aims to highlight the recent methods and devices based on artificial intelligence and novel techniques for measuring vital signs and processing algorithms. We analyzed 122 papers and classified them into six categories: (i) body temperature, (ii) blood oxygen saturation, (iii) heart rate monitoring, (iv) respiratory rate, (v) blood pressure, and (vi) simultaneous vital sign measurements. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology was used for the search and selection of scientific papers. The criteria to guide the scope of the review were defined with the Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, and Context (PICOC) methodology. The review highlighted significant efforts to develop and implement contactless, non-invasive devices for continuous monitoring outside clinical environments. It also revealed clear pathways for integrating AI at different stages of measurement and signal processing methods.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline

Research context

OpenAlex topics: Non-Invasive Vital Sign Monitoring · Healthcare Technology and Patient Monitoring · Sepsis Diagnosis and Treatment

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

Affiliations

Centro de Investigación en Computación, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City 07738, Mexico

Universidad Instituto de Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Ciudad Juárez 32310, Mexico

References (100+)

Show source-provided references
1. IoT-based vital sign monitoring: A literature review10.1016/j.smhl.2024.100462 ↗
2. Junaid, S., Imam, A., Shuaibu, A., Basri, S., Kumar, G., Surakat, Y., Balogun, A., Abdulkarim, M., Garba, A., and Sahalu, Y. (2022). Artificial intelligence, sensors and vital health signs: A review. Appl. Sci., 12.10.3390/app122211475 ↗
3. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses in ecology and evolutionary biology: A PRISMA extension10.1111/brv.12721 ↗
4. Make vital signs great again—A call for action10.1016/j.ejim.2017.09.018 ↗
5. A survey on machine learning approaches for vital sign monitoring using radar10.1016/j.measurement.2025.117707 ↗
6. Contactless vital sign monitoring systems: A comprehensive survey of remote health sensing for heart rate and respiration in internet of things and sleep applications10.1039/D4SD00073K ↗
7. Selvaraju, V., Spicher, N., Wang, J., Ganapathy, N., Warnecke, J., Leonhardt, S., Swaminathan, R., and Deserno, T. (2022). Continuous Monitoring of Vital Signs Using Cameras: A Systematic Review. Sensors, 22.10.3390/s22114097 ↗
8. PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: Updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews10.1136/bmj.n160 ↗
9. PRISMA2020: An R package and Shiny app for producing PRISMA 2020-compliant flow diagrams, with interactivity for optimised digital transparency and Open Synthesis10.1002/cl2.1230 ↗
10. Petticrew, M., and Roberts, H. (2006). Starting the Review: Refining the Question and Defining the Boundaries. Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.. Chapter 2.
11. Noncontact Sensors for Vital Signs Measurement: A Narrative Review10.12659/MSM.944913 ↗
12. Sapra, A., Malik, A., and Bhandari, P. (2025). Vital Sign Assessment. StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing.
14. Estimation of the respiratory rate from ballistocardiograms using the Hilbert transform10.1186/s12938-022-01024-4 ↗
15. Automated real-time processing of single lead electrocardiogram for simultaneous heart rate and respiratory rate monitoring10.1115/1.4035982 ↗
16. Longmore, S.K., Lui, G.Y., Naik, G., Breen, P.P., Jalaludin, B., and Gargiulo, G.D. (2019). A comparison of reflective photoplethysmography for detection of heart rate, blood oxygen saturation, and respiration rate at various anatomical locations. Sensors, 19.10.3390/s19081874 ↗
17. Remote sensing of vital signs by medical radar time-series signal using cardiac peak extraction and adaptive peak detection algorithm: Performance validation on healthy adults and application to neonatal monitoring at an NICU10.1016/j.cmpb.2022.107163 ↗
18. Vital signs estimation in elderly using camera-based photoplethysmography10.1007/s11042-023-18053-3 ↗
19. Robust non-contact monitoring of respiratory rate using a depth camera10.1007/s10877-023-01003-7 ↗
20. Costanzo, S., and Flores, A.M. (2021). IoT Non-contact Body Temperature Measurement System Implementing Access Control for COVID-19. Proceedings of the World Conference on Information Systems and Technologies, Springer.10.1007/978-3-030-72654-6_25 ↗
21. IoT-Enabled smart doors for monitoring body temperature and face mask detection10.1016/j.gltp.2021.08.071 ↗
22. Non-contact measurement of human respiration using an infrared thermal camera and the deep learning method10.1088/1361-6501/ac5ed9 ↗
23. Dias, D., and Paulo Silva Cunha, J. (2018). Wearable Health Devices—Vital Sign Monitoring, Systems and Technologies. Sensors, 18.10.3390/s18082414 ↗
24. Namazi, A., Modiri, E., Blesić, S., Knežević, O.M., and Mirkov, D.M. (2025). Comparative Analysis of Machine Learning Techniques for Heart Rate Prediction Employing Wearable Sensor Data. Sports, 13.10.3390/sports13030087 ↗
25. Staffini, A., Svensson, T., Chung, U.i., and Svensson, A.K. (2021). Heart rate modeling and prediction using autoregressive models and deep learning. Sensors, 22.10.3390/s22010034 ↗
26. Edge-based computation of super-resolution superlet spectrograms for real-time estimation of heart rate using an IoMT-based reference-signal-less PPG sensor10.1109/JIOT.2023.3322947 ↗
27. Ni, A., Azarang, A., and Kehtarnavaz, N. (2021). A review of deep learning-based contactless heart rate measurement methods. Sensors, 21.10.3390/s21113719 ↗
28. Deep learning for heart rate estimation from reflectance photoplethysmography with acceleration power spectrum and acceleration intensity10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2981956 ↗
29. Reiss, A., Indlekofer, I., Schmidt, P., and Van Laerhoven, K. (2019). Deep PPG: Large-scale heart rate estimation with convolutional neural networks. Sensors, 19.10.3390/s19143079 ↗
30. Deep learning on resting electrocardiogram to identify impaired heart rate recovery10.1016/j.cvdhj.2022.06.001 ↗
31. Accuracy of non-invasive body temperature measurement methods in critically ill patients: A prospective, bicentric, observational study
32. Mah, A.J., Ghazi Zadeh, L., Khoshnam Tehrani, M., Askari, S., Gandjbakhche, A.H., and Shadgan, B. (2021). Studying the accuracy and function of different thermometry techniques for measuring body temperature. Biology, 10.10.3390/biology10121327 ↗
33. IoT based measurement of body temperature using max30205
34. Development of a low-cost Arduino-based patient monitoring system for heartrate, oxygen saturation and body temperature parameters10.47355/aset.v1i1.15 ↗
35. Tamilselvi, V., Sribalaji, S., Vigneshwaran, P., Vinu, P., and GeethaRamani, J. (2020, January 6–7). IoT based health monitoring system. Proceedings of the 66th International Conference on Advanced Computing and Communication Systems (ICACCS), Coimbatore, India.10.1109/ICACCS48705.2020.9074192 ↗
36. Wearable heart rate and body temperature monitoring device for healthcare10.1088/1742-6596/1535/1/012002 ↗
37. Tunable diode laser-based two-line thermometry: A noncontact thermometer for active body temperature measurement10.1364/AO.430886 ↗
38. A high-performance, sensitive, wearable multifunctional sensor based on rubber/CNT for human motion and skin temperature detection10.1002/adma.202107309 ↗
39. Stretchable and transparent multimodal electronic-skin sensors in detecting strain, temperature, and humidity10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.107077 ↗
40. Sensitive wearable temperature sensor with seamless monolithic integration10.1002/adma.201905527 ↗
41. Ultrahigh sensitive Au-doped silicon nanomembrane based wearable sensor arrays for continuous skin temperature monitoring with high precision10.1002/adma.202105865 ↗
42. Fully printed PEDOT: PSS-based temperature sensor with high humidity stability for wireless healthcare monitoring10.1038/s41598-020-59432-2 ↗
43. Superhydrophobic and breathable smart MXene-based textile for multifunctional wearable sensing electronics10.1016/j.cej.2020.126898 ↗
44. Wireless battery-free body sensor networks using near-field-enabled clothing10.1038/s41467-020-14311-2 ↗
45. Suvorov, N.B., Belov, A.V., Kuliabin, K.G., Anisimov, A.A., Sergeev, T.V., and Markelov, O.A. (2021). High precision human skin temperature fluctuations measuring instrument. Sensors, 21.10.3390/s21124101 ↗
46. An innovative wearable device for monitoring continuous body surface temperature (HEARThermo): Instrument validation study10.2196/19210 ↗
47. Measurement and control of an incubator temperature by using conventional methods and fiber Bragg grating (FBG) based temperature sensors10.1007/s10916-020-01650-2 ↗
48. Mn2+-activated dual-wavelength emitting materials toward wearable optical fibre temperature sensor10.1038/s41467-022-29881-6 ↗
49. Core body temperature estimation model with thermal contact resistance compensation10.1016/j.measurement.2024.115687 ↗
50. Robust Skin Attachable Sensor for Core Body Temperature Monitoring10.1109/JSEN.2021.3075864 ↗
51. Anuar, H., and Leow, P.L. (2019, January 24–25). Non-invasive Core Body Temperature Sensor for Continuous Monitoring. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Sensors and Nanotechnology, Penang, Malaysia.10.1109/SENSORSNANO44414.2019.8940040 ↗
52. Chaglla E., J.S., Celik, N., and Balachandran, W. (2018). Measurement of Core Body Temperature Using Graphene-Inked Infrared Thermopile Sensor. Sensors, 18.10.3390/s18103315 ↗
53. Individualized estimation of human core body temperature using noninvasive measurements10.1152/japplphysiol.00837.2017 ↗
54. Accuracy of Pulse Oximetry and Risk Factors Associated with Discrepancy From Arterial Oxygenation in Asian Patients in the ICU: An Observational Study10.1016/j.chest.2025.03.006 ↗
55. Shi, C., Goodall, M., Dumville, J., Hill, J., Norman, G., Hamer, O., Clegg, A., Watkins, C.L., Georgiou, G., and Hodkinson, A. (2022). The accuracy of pulse oximetry in measuring oxygen saturation by levels of skin pigmentation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Med., 20.10.1186/s12916-022-02452-8 ↗
56. Determining factors of pulse oximetry accuracy: A literature review
57. Cheng, C.H., Wong, K.L., Chin, J.W., Chan, T.T., and So, R.H. (2021). Deep learning methods for remote heart rate measurement: A review and future research agenda. Sensors, 21.10.3390/s21186296 ↗
58. Davies, H.J., Williams, I., Peters, N.S., and Mandic, D.P. (2020). In-ear spo2: A tool for wearable, unobtrusive monitoring of core blood oxygen saturation. Sensors, 20.10.3390/s20174879 ↗
59. Cabanas, A.M., Sáez, N., Collao-Caiconte, P.O., Martín-Escudero, P., Pagán, J., Jiménez-Herranz, E., and Ayala, J.L. (2024). Evaluating AI Methods for Pulse Oximetry: Performance, Clinical Accuracy, and Comprehensive Bias Analysis. Bioengineering, 11.10.3390/bioengineering11111061 ↗
60. Contactless blood oxygen estimation from face videos: A multi-model fusion method based on deep learning10.1016/j.bspc.2022.104487 ↗
61. Frailty identification using heart rate dynamics: A deep learning approach10.1109/JBHI.2022.3152538 ↗
62. Chourpiliadis, C., and Bhardwaj, A. (2022). Physiology, Respiratory Rate. StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing.
63. Society of Critical Care Medicine Guidelines on Recognizing and Responding to Clinical Deterioration Outside the ICU: 202310.1097/CCM.0000000000006072 ↗
64. Respiratory rate monitoring in healthy volunteers by central photoplethysmography compared to capnography10.1002/jbio.202100270 ↗
65. Dehkordi, P., Garde, A., Molavi, B., Ansermino, J.M., and Dumont, G.A. (2018). Extracting instantaneous respiratory rate from multiple photoplethysmogram respiratory-induced variations. Front. Physiol., 9.10.3389/fphys.2018.00948 ↗
66. A robust fusion model for estimating respiratory rate from photoplethysmography and electrocardiography10.1109/TBME.2017.2778265 ↗
67. Baker, S., Xiang, W., and Atkinson, I. (2021). Determining respiratory rate from photoplethysmogram and electrocardiogram signals using respiratory quality indices and neural networks. PLoS ONE, 16.10.1371/journal.pone.0249843 ↗
68. Photoplethysmography-based respiratory rate estimation algorithm for health monitoring applications10.1007/s40846-022-00700-z ↗
69. Clinical evaluation of a wearable sensor for mobile monitoring of respiratory rate on hospital wards10.1007/s10877-021-00753-6 ↗
70. A novel minimal-contact biomotion method for long-term respiratory rate monitoring10.1007/s11325-020-02067-4 ↗
71. An accurate respiratory rate estimation algorithm for a rubber fiber respiratory sensor10.1177/15280837241248181 ↗
72. A flexible capacitive pressure sensor for wearable respiration monitoring system
73. Acoustic method respiratory rate monitoring is useful in patients under intravenous anesthesia10.1007/s10877-015-9822-4 ↗
74. Pant, S., Umesh, S., and Asokan, S. (2018, January 11–13). Fiber Bragg grating respiratory measurement device. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA), Rome, Italy.10.1109/MeMeA.2018.8438774 ↗
75. Parallel waveguide fiber Bragg gratings–Used for detecting human respiratory rate, trunk status, and pulse10.1016/j.optlastec.2024.111960 ↗
76. Smart mattress based on multipoint fiber Bragg gratings for respiratory rate monitoring
77. A wearable system based on flexible sensors for unobtrusive respiratory monitoring in occupational settings
78. Smartphone-based respiratory rate estimation using photoplethysmographic imaging and discrete wavelet transform10.1007/s12652-019-01339-6 ↗
79. A wearable body condition sensor system with wireless feedback alarm functions10.1002/adma.202008701 ↗
80. Paper-based electrical respiration sensor10.1002/anie.201511805 ↗
81. Non-contact, synchronous dynamic measurement of respiratory rate and heart rate based on dual sensitive regions10.1186/s12938-016-0300-0 ↗
82. Chen, W., and McDuff, D. (2018, January 8–14). Deepphys: Video-based physiological measurement using convolutional attention networks. Proceedings of the European Conference on Computer Vision, Munich, Germany.10.1007/978-3-030-01216-8_22 ↗
83. Video-based respiratory rate estimation for infants in the NICU10.1109/JTEHM.2024.3488523 ↗
84. Validation of a novel contact-free heart and respiratory rate monitor10.1080/03091902.2021.1905896 ↗
85. Non-contact respiratory rate monitoring using thermal and visible imaging: A pilot study on neonates10.1007/s10877-022-00945-8 ↗
86. A novel, contactless, portable “spot-check” device accurately measures respiratory rate10.1115/1.4046923 ↗
87. Multispectral video fusion for non-contact monitoring of respiratory rate and apnea10.1109/TBME.2020.2993649 ↗
88. Design and Implementation of Low-Cost Respiratory Rate Measurement Device10.1007/s13369-023-08533-x ↗
89. Evaluation of respiratory rate monitoring using a microwave Doppler sensor mounted on the ceiling of an intensive care unit: A prospective observational study10.1007/s10877-021-00733-w ↗
90. Efficient fabrication of CrFeO3-based humidity sensing device with fast dynamics for real-time breath monitoring and contact-less sensing10.1002/ppsc.202400072 ↗
91. Non-contact wi-fi sensing of respiration rate for older adults in care: A validity and repeatability study10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3349700 ↗
92. Low-power radar system for noncontact human respiration sensor10.1109/TIM.2021.3087839 ↗
93. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA Guideline for the Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Management of High Blood Pressure in Adults: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines
94. 2020 International Society of Hypertension Global Hypertension Practice Guidelines10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15026 ↗
95. 2021 European Society of Hypertension practice guidelines for office and out-of-office blood pressure measurement10.1097/HJH.0000000000002843 ↗
96. A deep learning model for cuffless blood pressure estimation using a recurrent neural network
97. Elgendi, M. (2016). Optimal Signal Quality Index for Photoplethysmogram Signals. Bioengineering, 3.10.3390/bioengineering3040021 ↗
98. PPG-Based Automated Estimation of Blood Pressure Using Patient-Specific Neural Network Modeling10.1142/S0219519420500372 ↗
99. BePCon: A Photoplethysmography-Based Quality-Aware Continuous Beat-to-Beat Blood Pressure Measurement Technique Using Deep Learning
100. Multi-Wavelength Photoplethysmography Enabling Continuous Blood Pressure Measurement With Compact Wearable Electronics10.1109/TBME.2018.2874957 ↗