Hybrid FEM/SPH Modeling and CT Analysis of Dynamic Damage in Structural Steel Under Impact Loading
Source abstract
Abstract
This study analyzed the dynamic behavior of EN C45 structural steel under impulse loading generated by a pressure wave. The experiments were conducted on a special test rig using two load configurations: (I) direct contact of the load with the sample surface and (II) detonation at a distance of 30 mm. Depending on the loading conditions, the specimens were fragmented or developed extensive internal cracks and plastic deformations. To complement the experimental program, hybrid numerical simulations were performed using the finite element method (FEM), smoothed particles hydrodynamics (SPH), and coupled Euler–Lagrange (CEL) approach. A modified Johnson–Cook (JC) model was used to account for dynamic damage and cracks. Computed tomography (CT) and metallographic analyses provided detailed information on the formation of cracks in MnS inclusions, brittle cracks near the sample axis, and shear deformation zones away from the axis. These observations allowed direct correlation with the predicted numerical deformation and damage fields. The innovative nature of this work lies in the combination of three complementary computational techniques with computed tomography analysis and microstructure analysis, providing a comprehensive framework for describing and confirming the mechanisms of damage and fragmentation of structural steels under explosive loading.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: High-Velocity Impact and Material Behavior · Fluid Dynamics Simulations and Interactions · Metal Forming Simulation Techniques
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Department of Mechanics, Materials and Biomedical Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Smoluchowskiego 25, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
Department of Lightweight Elements Engineering, Foundry and Automation, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Smoluchowskiego 25, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
Department of Advanced Manufacturing Technologies, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Łukasiewicza 5, 50-371 Wrocław, Poland
Military Institute of Armament Technology, Prymasa Stefana Wyszyńskiego 7 Street, 05-220 Zielonka, Poland
References (71)
Show source-provided references
1. (1990). Structures to Resist the Effects of Accidental Explosions, Departments of The Army, The Navy and The Air Force.
2. On dimensionless loading parameters for close-in blasts10.1260/1750-9548.9.2.171 ↗
3. Smith, P.D., and Hetherington, J.G. (1994). Blast and Ballistic Loading of Structures, Taylor & Francis.
4. The Relationship Between Selected Blast-Wave Parameters and the Response of Mammals Exposed To Air Blast10.1111/j.1749-6632.1968.tb11970.x ↗
5. Saska, P., and Czmochowski, J. (2012). Analiza Charakterystyk Fali Uderzeniowej Wybuchu Obciążającej Osłony o Różnym Kształcie, Zesz Nauk Wyższej Szk Oficer Wojsk Lądowych. (In Polish).
6. Blast injury risks to humans within a military trench10.1016/j.dt.2024.03.006 ↗
7. Sandwich panel subjected to blast wave impact and accelerated fragments
8. Ground deformation and blast wave propagation in dry sand subjected to buried explosion: A centrifuge modelling study10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2024.104935 ↗
9. The effect of confinement and stand-off distance in blast tests
10. Kciuk, S., Krzystała, E., Mężyk, A., and Szmidt, P. (2022). The application of microelectromechanical systems (Mems) accelerometers to the assessment of blast threat to armored vehicle crew. Sensors, 22.10.3390/s22010316 ↗
11. Mays, G.C., and Smith, P.D. (1995). Blast Effects on Buildings: Design of Buildings to Optimize Resistance to Blast Loading, Thomas Telford Publications.
12. Baker, W.E., Cox, P.A., Weslina, P.S., Kulesz, J.J., and Strehlow, R.A. (1983). Explosion Hazards and Evaluation, Elsevier.
13. Bulson, P.S. (1997). Explosive Loading of Engineering Structures, Taylor & Francis.10.4324/9780203473863 ↗
14. Henrych, J. (1979). The Dynamics of Explosion and Its Use, Elsevier.
15. Wlodarczyk, E. (1994). Introduction to the Explosion Mechanics, PWN. (In Polish).
16. Wlodarczyk, E. (2012). The Basic Physics of Explosion, WAT. (In Polish).
17. Large deformation of thin plates under localised impulsive loading10.1016/S0734-743X(96)00027-9 ↗
18. Response of circular plates to central pulse loading10.1016/0020-7683(77)90079-8 ↗
19. Fracture prediction of thin plates under localized impulsive loading. Part I: Dishing10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2004.07.010 ↗
20. Fracture prediction of thin plates under localized impulsive loading Part II: Discing and petalling10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2004.07.011 ↗
21. Deformation and rupture of blast loaded square plates-predictions and experiments10.1016/0734-743X(93)90097-Q ↗
22. Zhu, F., and Lu, G. (2007). A review of blast and impact of metallic and sandwich structures. Spec. Issue Load. Struct., 92–101.10.56748/ejse.681 ↗
23. Broken beams—Tearing and shear failures in explosively loaded clamped beams10.1007/BF02322734 ↗
24. Shear and adiabatic shear failures in an impulsively loaded fully clamped beam10.1016/S0734-743X(99)00013-5 ↗
25. The effect of stand-off distance on the failure of fully clamped circular mild steel plates subjected to blast loads10.1016/j.engstruct.2007.01.021 ↗
26. Krysiak, P., Błachut, A., and Kaleta, J. (2021). Theoretical and experimental analysis of inter-layer stresses in filament-wound cylindrical composite structures. Materials, 14.10.3390/ma14227037 ↗
27. Numerical simulations of blast loads and structural deformation from near-field explosions in air10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2011.02.005 ↗
28. Load carrying capacity numerical study of I-beam pillar structure with blast protective panel
29. Response of armour steel plates to localised air blast load—A dimensional analysis
30. Scaling the response of circular plates subjected to large and close-range spherical explosions. Part I: Air-blast loading10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2006.04.001 ↗
31. Scaling the response of circular plates subjected to large and close-range spherical explosions. Part II: Buried charges
32. Determination of Parameters for Johnson-Cook Dynamic Constitutive and Damage Models for E250 Structural Steel and Experimental Validations10.1007/s11665-023-08733-4 ↗
33. Post-localized blast experimental investigation of mechanical properties and microstructural evolutions in austenitic stainless steel 316L10.1016/j.mtla.2024.102263 ↗
34. Higgs, S., Ameri, A., Pablo Escobedo, J., and Hutchison, W.D. (2019). Microstructural Characterisation of a High Strength Steel Subjected to Localised Blast Loading. Characterization of Minerals, Metals, and Materials, Springer International Publishing.10.1007/978-3-030-05749-7_71 ↗
35. Ekström, J. (2017). Blast and Impact Loaded Concrete Structures. [Doctoral Thesis, Chalmers University of Technology].
36. Krysiak, P., Szczepaniak, M., Śliwiński, J., Wojciechowska, A., and Wojcieszyńska, P. (2016). Modeling and strength analysis of a vessel for transporting explosive materials. Prob. Armament, 139.10.5604/01.3001.0010.0537 ↗
37. Appuhamilage, G. (2015). Effects of Blast Loading on Reinforced Concrete Facade Systems. [Doctoral Thesis, Victoria University].
38. Analiza oddziaływania wybuchu zewnętrznego na przegrody budowlane
39. A visual model for blast waves and fracture
40. Quantitative assessment of the effect of in-situ stresses on blast-induced damage to rock10.1016/j.compstruc.2023.107116 ↗
41. Pyka, D., Kurzawa, A., Bocian, M., Bajkowski, M., Magier, M., Sliwinski, J., and Jamroziak, K. (2020). Numerical and experimental studies of the Łk type shaped charge. Appl. Sci., 10.10.3390/app10196742 ↗
42. Liu, S., Xu, X., Zhou, B., and Yang, K. (2023). Punching Shear Failure Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Slabs under Close-in Explosion. Materials, 16.10.3390/ma16186339 ↗
43. Investigation of shear stress on a shock front in solid high explosives (HE)10.1007/BF00782865 ↗
44. Przegląd metod obliczania parametrów fal podmuchowych10.5604/20815891.1195201 ↗
45. Identification of the shockwave effect onto Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) personnel during controlled airblast of TNT charge
46. (2024, April 03). C45 Medium Carbon Steel—Murray Steel Products. Available online: https://www.murraysteelproducts.com/download/file/195/C45%20Medium%20Carbon%20Steel%20-%20Murray%20Steel%20Products.pdf.
47. (2024, April 03). Available online: https://www.steelnumber.com/en/steel_composition_eu.php?name_id=152.
48. (2006). Steels for Quenching and Tempering—Part 2: Technical Delivery Conditions for Non Alloy Steels (Standard No. DIN EN 10083-2).
49. Iyer, N.R. (2014, January 1–2). Behaviour of Heated and Naturally Cooled Steel Tubular Joints. Proceedings of the National Conference on Fire Research and Engineering, Roorkee, India.
50. Moravčíková, J., Moravčík, R., and Palcut, M. (2022). Effect of Heat Treatment on the Resulting Dimensional Characteristics of the C45 Carbon Steel after Turning. Metals, 12.10.3390/met12111899 ↗
51. Roszak, M., Pyka, D., Bocian, M., Barsan, N., Dragašius, E., and Jamroziak, K. (2023). Multi-Layer Fabric Composites Combined with Non-Newtonian Shear Thickening in Ballistic Protection—Hybrid Numerical Methods and Ballistic Tests. Polymers, 15.10.3390/polym15173584 ↗
52. (2009). ABAQUS, Washington University in St. Louis. Version 6.6; Analysis User’s Manual Documentation.
53. Ling, C., Ren, X., Wang, X., Li, Y., Liu, Z., Wang, B., and Zhao, J. (2024). Dynamic Mechanical Properties and Modified Johnson-Cook Model Considering Recrystallization Softening for Nickel-Based Powder Metallurgy Superalloys. Materials, 17.10.3390/ma17030670 ↗
54. Experimental and metallographic analysis of the energy absorbing shield subjected to the EFP impact10.1063/1.5092038 ↗
55. Malachowski, J., and Mazurkiewicz, P. (2020, January 20). Elastic-Plastic Half Cylidrical Surface Response Under Blast Loading. CMM-2011—Computer Methods in Mechanics. Available online: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/1a60/2fd261123bb1f40f4d3ba6f92b49e42c5977.pdf.
56. Analytical method for determining cutting forces during orthogonal turning of C45 steel10.21741/9781644902479-142 ↗
57. Finite element simulation and experiment of chip formation during high speed cutting of hardened steel10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.29-32.1838 ↗
58. Constitutive model for predicting dynamic interactions between soil ejecta and structural panels10.1016/j.jmps.2009.05.001 ↗
59. Rusiński, E., and Pietrusiak, D. (2019). Numerical modelling of cylindrical test for determining Jones—Wilkins—Lee equation parameters. Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, Proceedings of the 14th International Scientific Conference: Computer Aided Engineering, CAE 2018, Springer.
60. Ding, L., Tang, W., and Ran, X. (2018). Simulation study on jet formability and damage characteristics of a low-density material liner. Materials, 11.10.3390/ma11010072 ↗
61. Penetration of annular and general jets into underwater plates10.1007/s40571-020-00330-9 ↗
62. Air blast TNT equivalence concept for blast-resistant design10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2020.105871 ↗
63. Jach, K. (2001). Computer Modeling of Dynamic Body Interactions Using a Smoothed Particles Hydrodynamics, PWN. (In Polish).
64. Reid, J.D., Coon, B.A., Lewis, B.A., Sutherland, S.H., and Murray, Y.D. (2004). Evaluation of LS-DYNA Soil Material Model 147, Federal Highway Administration. Fhwa-Hrt-04-094.
65. Application of X-ray CT method for discontinuity and porosity detection in 316L stainless steel parts produced with SLM technology10.1016/j.acme.2014.02.003 ↗
66. Pyka, D., Olaleye, K., Kurzawa, A., Roik, T., Ziolkowski, G., Bocian, M., and Jamroziak, K. (2022). Analysis of Pulse Load of a Steel Roller in the Numerical Simulation Method. Fatigue and Fracture of Materials and Structures, Springer International Publishing.10.1007/978-3-030-97822-8_5 ↗
67. Krumm, M., Kasperl, S., and Frantz, M. (2008, January 25–28). Referenceless beam hardening correction in 3D computed tomography images of multi-material objects. Proceedings of the 17th World Conference on Non-Destructive Testing, Shanghai, China.
68. Micro defects formation and dynamic response analysis of steel plate of quasi-cracking area subjected to explosive load
69. Du, Y., Zhou, X., Bai, R., and Zhang, Y. (2025). Effect of Intercritical Quenching Temperature on Microstructure and Mechanical Performance of Cr-Ni-Mo-V Steel with Banded Structure. Materials, 18.10.3390/ma18174017 ↗
70. Complexity of crack front geometry enhances toughness of brittle solids10.1038/s41567-024-02435-x ↗
71. The Role of Splitting Phenomenon under Fracture of Low-Carbon Microalloyed X80 Pipeline Steels during Multiple Charpy Impact Tests10.3390/applmech3030044 ↗