Wireless May Benefit Blockchain
Source abstract
Abstract
Wireless technologies now take every part of one’s everyday life. As such, it will be no longer a surprise if a blockchain system is composed of wirelessly connected nodes. However, wireless communication is known for its inherent unreliability caused by noise, interference, limited bandwidth, etc. Motivated by this fundamental problem, this paper investigates the impact of wireless communications on the performance of three representative consensus mechanisms, viz., proof of work (PoW), proof of stake (PoS), and proof of coverage (PoC). It features a comprehensive analytical framework that mathematically derives metrics quantifying the scalability and the level of decentralization of the three consensus mechanisms, constituting a key contribution of this work. The paper then proceeds to present extensive simulation results as a means to confirm the underpinning theoretical findings. Overall, we emphasize that the framework’s holisticity will allow it to be applied to diverse consensus mechanisms.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA 30460, USA
School of Information and Communication Engineering, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea
Funding
Chungbuk National University BK21 program
References (65)
Show source-provided references
1. Howarth, J. (2024, December 01). Internet Traffic from Mobile Devices. Available online: https://explodingtopics.com/blog/mobile-internet-traffic.
2. PSUN: An OFDM—Pulsed radar coexistence technique with application to 3.5 GHz LTE
3. Coexistence of 5G with the incumbents in the 28 and 70 GHz bands10.1109/JSAC.2017.2687238 ↗
4. Coexistence of outdoor Wi-Fi and radar at 3.5 GHz10.1109/LWC.2017.2710341 ↗
5. Kim, S., and Kim, B.J. (2020). Novel backoff mechanism for mitigation of congestion in DSRC broadcast. arXiv.
6. Kim, S., Sharif, Y., and Nasim, I. (2019). Human electromagnetic field exposure in wearable communications: A review. arXiv.
7. Nasim, I., and Kim, S. (2020). Human EMF exposure in wearable networks for internet of battlefield things. arXiv.10.1109/MILCOM47813.2019.9020889 ↗
8. Blockchain for intelligent transportation systems: Applications, challenges, and opportunities10.1109/JIOT.2023.3277923 ↗
9. Blockchain-based management of demand response in electric energy grids: A systematic review10.1016/j.egyr.2023.04.020 ↗
10. Blockchain applications in sustainable smart cities10.1016/j.scs.2023.104697 ↗
11. Blockchain applications in UAV industry: Review, opportunities, and challenges10.1016/j.jnca.2024.103932 ↗
12. Blockchain-IoT healthcare applications and trends: A review10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3349187 ↗
13. Wireless communications and networking: An overview10.1109/74.997963 ↗
14. Efficient and trusted data sharing in a sharding-enabled vehicular blockchain10.1109/MNET.122.2100755 ↗
15. Performance analysis of blockchain-enabled data-sharing scheme in cloud-edge computing-based IoT networks10.1109/JIOT.2022.3181556 ↗
16. Bedawala, M. (2024, December 01). A Deeper Dive into Consensus Mechanisms. Available online: https://usa.visa.com/solutions/crypto/consensus-mechanisms.html#:~:text=In%20blockchains%2C%20reaching%20consensus%20is,distributed%20nature%20of%20the%20network.
17. Nakamoto, S. (2024, December 01). Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System. Available online: https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf.
18. Ethereum Foundation (2024, December 01). Proof-of-Stake (PoS). Available online: https://ethereum.org/en/developers/docs/consensus-mechanisms/pos/.
19. European Parliament (2024, December 01). Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain. PE 619.024. Available online: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/cmsdata/150761/TAX3%20Study%20on%20cryptocurrencies%20and%20blockchain.pdf.
20. Pricing via processing or combatting junk mail
21. Monte, G., Pennino, D., and Pizzonia, M. (2020, January 25). Scaling blockchains without giving up decentralization and security: A solution to the blockchain scalability trilemma. Proceedings of the Workshop on Cryptocurrencies and Blockchains for Distributed Systems, London, UK.10.1145/3410699.3413800 ↗
22. Solving blockchain trilemma using off-chain storage protocol10.1049/ise2.12124 ↗
23. Byzantine-fault-tolerant consensus via reinforcement learning for permissioned blockchain implemented in a V2X network10.1109/TIV.2022.3168575 ↗
24. Trifecta Blockchain Team (2024, December 01). Trifecta: The Blockchain Trilemma Solved. White Paper., Available online: https://pramodv.ece.illinois.edu/pubs/Whitepaper2019-9.pdf.
25. Khatoon, A., Verma, P., Southernwood, J., Massey, B., and Corcoran, P. (2019). Blockchain in energy efficiency: Potential applications and benefits. Energies, 12.10.3390/en12173317 ↗
26. Rathod, T., Jadav, N., Alshehri, M., Tanwar, S., Sharma, R., Felseghi, R., and Raboaca, M. (2022). Blockchain for future wireless networks: A decade survey. Sensors, 22.10.3390/s22114182 ↗
27. Chang, S., Deng, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhao, Q., Wang, R., and Jia, X. (2022, January 17–22). An advanced scheme for range ambiguity suppression of spaceborne SAR based on cocktail party effect. Proceedings of the IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.10.1109/IGARSS46834.2022.9884347 ↗
28. Latency and performance analyses of real-world wireless IoT-blockchain application10.1109/JSEN.2020.2979031 ↗
29. How much communication resource is needed to run a wireless blockchain network?10.1109/MNET.101.2100208 ↗
30. AirCon: Over-the-air consensus for wireless blockchain networks10.1109/TMC.2023.3292898 ↗
31. Connectivity-aware contract for incentivizing IoT devices in complex wireless blockchain10.1109/JIOT.2023.3239928 ↗
32. A survey of fault tolerant consensus in wireless networks10.1016/j.hcc.2024.100202 ↗
33. Bevilacqua-Linn, M., Byron, M., Cline, P., Moore, J., and Muir, S. (2014, January 17–20). Sirius: Distributing and coordinating application. Proceedings of the USENIX Annual Technical Conference, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
34. Kim, S. (2024). Is wireless bad for consensus in blockchain?. arXiv.10.1109/ICBC59979.2024.10634428 ↗
35. Stochastic geometry for modeling, analysis, and design of multi-tier and cognitive cellular wireless networks: A survey10.1109/SURV.2013.052213.00000 ↗
36. Kim, S., Choi, W., Choi, Y., Lee, J., and Han, Y. (2009, January 13–16). Interference reduction of cellular relay networks in multiple-cell environment by spectrum agility. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC), Tokyo, Japan.
37. Kim, S., Cho, K.S., and Kim, H.S. (November, January 31). The capacity of cognitive ad hoc networks. Proceedings of the 2010 16th Asia-Pacific Conference on Communications (APCC), Auckland, New Zealand.
38. 3GPP (2024, December 01). Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS); LTE; Proximity-Based Services (ProSe); Stage 2. ETSI TS 123 303, V17.1.0. Available online: https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123300_123399/123303/17.01.00_60/ts_123303v170100p.pdf.
39. Sunuwar, D., Kim, S., and Reyes, Z. (2023). Is 30 MHz Enough for C-V2X?. arXiv.10.1109/VTC2023-Fall60731.2023.10333604 ↗
40. Jelasity, M. (2011). Gossip, Springer. Available online: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-17348-6_7.
41. Driscoll, K., Hall, B., Sivencrona, H., and Zumsteg, P. (2003, January 23–26). Byzantine fault tolerance, from theory to reality. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Safety, Reliability, and Security, Edinburgh, UK.10.1007/978-3-540-39878-3_19 ↗
42. Modeling interference in wireless ad hoc networks10.1109/SURV.2010.032710.00096 ↗
43. Castro, M., and Liskov, B. (1999, January 22–25). Practical byzantine fault tolerance. Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation, New Orleans, LA, USA.
44. Paxos made simple
45. Ongaro, D., and Ousterhout, J. (2024, December 01). In Search of an Understandable Consensus Algorithm (Extended Version). Available online: https://raft.github.io/raft.pdf.
46. Ethereum Foundation (2024, December 01). Networking Layer. Available online: https://ethereum.org/en/developers/docs/networking-layer/#connecting-clients.
47. Ethereum Foundation (2024, December 01). Consensus Mechanisms. Available online: https://ethereum.org/en/developers/docs/consensus-mechanisms/.
48. Helium Network (2024, December 01). Proof of Coverage. Available online: https://docs.helium.com/iot/proof-of-coverage/.
49. Haleem, A. (2024, December 01). Helium Network (HNT): Decentralizing Wireless Networks. Available online: https://www.gemini.com/cryptopedia/helium-network-token-map-helium-hotspot-hnt-coin.
50. The Wireless Miner (2024, December 01). An Introduction to Proof of Coverage for Blockchains. Available online: https://thewirelessminer.com/2022/02/21/an-introduction-to-proof-of-coverage-for-blockchains/.
51. On the measure of concentration with special reference to income and statistics
52. Evaluating the scalability of distributed systems10.1109/71.862209 ↗
53. Scaling laws for throughput capacity and delay in wireless networks—A survey10.1109/SURV.2013.081313.00039 ↗
54. Hunt, P., Konar, M., Junqueira, F., and Reed, B. (2010, January 23–25). ZooKeeper: Wait-free coordination for internet-scale systems. Proceedings of the Annual Technical Conference, Berkeley, CA, USA.
55. Tikiri–Towards a lightweight blockchain for IoT10.1016/j.future.2021.02.006 ↗
56. Duan, J., Karve, A., Sreedhar, V., and Zeng, S. (2018, January 2–7). Service management of blockchain networks. Proceedings of the International Conference on Cloud Computing, San Francisco, CA, USA.10.1109/CLOUD.2018.00046 ↗
57. Throughput-delay trade-off in wireless networks—Part I: The fluid model10.1109/TIT.2006.874379 ↗
58. Kim, S., and Kim, B.J. (2022, January 6–9). On the Byzantine-fault-tolerant consensus in blockchain built on internet of vehicles. Proceedings of the 2022 International Conference on Electronics, Information, and Communication (ICEIC), Jeju, Republic of Korea.10.1109/ICEIC54506.2022.9748278 ↗
59. Measuring decentrality in blockchain based systems10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3026577 ↗
60. Cowell, F. (2006). Theil, inequality indices and decomposition. Dynamics Inequality Poverty, Society for the Study of Economic Inequality.10.1016/S1049-2585(06)13012-4 ↗
61. Measuring resource inequality: The Gini coefficient10.5038/1936-4660.2.2.4 ↗
62. Sen, A. (1977). On Economic Inequality, Oxford University Press.
63. Cao, F., and Marshall, N. (2022). From the binomial reshuffling model to Poisson distribution of money. arXiv.
64. Mobility increases the capacity of ad hoc wireless networks10.1109/TNET.2002.801403 ↗
65. Helium Foundation (2024, December 01). HIP-70: Scaling the Helium Network. Available online: https://github.com/helium/HIP/blob/main/0070-scaling-helium.md.