Green Macroalgae Biomass Upcycling as a Sustainable Resource for Value-Added Applications
Source abstract
Abstract
As the global demand for eco-friendly food ingredients grows, marine macroalgae emerge as a valuable resource for multiple applications using a circular bioeconomy approach. In this study, green macroalgae Ulva flexuosa, naturally accumulated in aquaculture ponds as a residual biomass (by-product) of shrimp and oyster farming, were investigated regarding their bioactivity, chemical composition, and antioxidant properties. The use of aquaculture by-products as raw materials not only reduces waste accumulation but also makes better use of natural resources and adds value to underutilized biomass, contributing to sustainable production systems. For this, a comprehensive approach including the evaluation of its composition and environmentally friendly extraction of bioactive compounds was conducted and discussed. Green macroalgae exhibited high fiber (37.63% dry weight, DW) and mineral (30.45% DW) contents. Among the identified compounds, palmitic acid and linoleic acid (ω-6) were identified in the highest concentrations. Pigment analysis revealed a high concentration of chlorophylls (73.95 mg/g) and carotenoids (17.75 mg/g). To evaluate the bioactivity of Ulva flexuosa, ultrasound-assisted solid–liquid extraction was performed using water, ethanol, and methanol. Methanolic extracts showed the highest flavonoid content (59.33 mg QE/100 g), while aqueous extracts had the highest total phenolic content (41.50 mg GAE/100 g). Ethanolic and methanolic extracts had the most potent DPPH scavenging activity, whereas aqueous and ethanolic extracts performed best at the ABTS assay. Overall, we show the upcycling of Ulva flexuosa, an underexplored aquaculture by-product, as a sustainable and sensible strategy for multiple value-added applications.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Seaweed-derived Bioactive Compounds · Food Industry and Aquatic Biology · Algal biology and biofuel production
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Graduate Program in Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal 59078-970, RN, Brazil
Department of Pharmacy, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal 59078-970, RN, Brazil
Funding
Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior—Brasil (CAPES, Brazil)
References (89)
Show source-provided references
1. Palaniyappan, S., Sridhar, A., Kari, Z.A., Téllez-Isaías, G., and Ramasamy, T. (2023). Evaluation of Phytochemical Screening, Pigment Content, In Vitro Antioxidant, Antibacterial Potential and GC-MS Metabolite Profiling of Green Seaweed Caulerpa racemosa. Mar. Drugs, 21.10.3390/md21050278 ↗
2. Bioremediation potential of the macroalga Gracilaria lemaneiformis (Rhodophyta) integrated into fed fish culture in coastal waters of north China10.1016/j.aquaculture.2005.06.046 ↗
3. Life cycle assessment of macroalgae cultivation and processing for biofuel production10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.03.080 ↗
4. Pantis, A., Nikoloudakis, C., and Tsoutsos, T. (2024). A Critical Review of Macroalgae Exploitation Pathways Implemented under the Scope of Life Cycle Assessment. ChemEngineering, 8.10.3390/chemengineering8040074 ↗
5. Sustainability and life cycle assessment (LCA) of macroalgae-derived single cell oils10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.315 ↗
6. Life cycle assessment of bioenergy and value-added biochemical production from Nizimudinia zanardini brown macroalgae10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.179225 ↗
7. Carpena, M., Pereira, C.S.G.P., Silva, A., Barciela, P., Jorge, A.O.S., Perez-Vazquez, A., Pereira, A.G., Barreira, J.C.M., Oliveira, M.B.P.P., and Prieto, M.A. (2024). Metabolite Profiling of Macroalgae: Biosynthesis and Beneficial Biological Properties of Active Compounds. Mar. Drugs, 22.10.3390/md22100478 ↗
8. Narayanankutty, A., Famurewa, A.C., and Oprea, E. (2024). Natural Bioactive Compounds and Human Health. Molecules, 29.10.3390/books978-3-7258-1663-7 ↗
9. Minicante, S.A., Bongiorni, L., and De Lazzari, A. (2022). Bio-Based Products from Mediterranean Seaweeds: Italian Opportunities and Challenges for a Sustainable Blue Economy. Sustainability, 14.10.3390/su14095634 ↗
10. Algae as a Source of Natural Flavors in Innovative Foods10.1021/acs.jafc.1c04409 ↗
11. Lopes, D., Rey, F., Leal, M.C., Lillebø, A.I., Calado, R., and Domingues, M.R. (2021). Bioactivities of Lipid Extracts and Complex Lipids from Seaweeds: Current Knowledge and Future Prospects. Mar. Drugs, 19.10.3390/md19120686 ↗
12. World cuisine of seaweeds: Science meets gastronomy10.1016/j.ijgfs.2018.09.002 ↗
13. El-Shafei, R., Hegazy, H., and Acharya, B. (2021). A Review of Antiviral and Antioxidant Activity of Bioactive Metabolite of Macroalgae within an Optimized Extraction Method. Energies, 14.10.3390/en14113092 ↗
14. Yordi, E.G., Martínez, A.P., Radice, M., Scalvenzi, L., Abreu-Naranjo, R., Uriarte, E., Santana, L., and Matos, M.J. (2024). Seaweeds as Source of Bioactive Pigments with Neuroprotective and/or Anti-Neurodegenerative Activities: Astaxanthin and Fucoxanthin. Mar. Drugs, 22.10.3390/md22070327 ↗
15. Qiu, Y., Chen, Z., Zhu, Y., Wen, J., Wen, Y., Liu, Y., Chen, W., and Zhao, C. (2024). Green algal polysaccharides and derivatives as potential therapeutics for metabolic diseases. Food Biosci., 62.10.1016/j.fbio.2024.105310 ↗
16. Boukid, F., and Castellari, M. (2023). Algae as Nutritional and Functional Food Sources. Foods, 12.10.3390/foods12010122 ↗
17. Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: Revisiting our understanding10.1007/s10811-016-0974-5 ↗
18. Arya, S.K., Khatri, M., and Singh, G. (2024). Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods from Algae: Formulation and Health Benefits. Value Added Products from Bioalgae Based Biorefineries: Opportunities and Challenges, Springer Nature.10.1007/978-981-97-1662-3 ↗
19. El-Beltagi, H.S., Mohamed, A.A., Mohamed, H.I., Ramadan, K.M.A., Barqawi, A.A., and Mansour, A.T. (2022). Phytochemical and Potential Properties of Seaweeds and Their Recent Applications: A Review. Mar. Drugs, 20.10.3390/md20060342 ↗
20. Mutavski, Z., Jerković, I., Nikolić, N.Ć., Radman, S., Flanjak, I., Aladić, K., Šubarić, D., Vulić, J., and Jokić, S. (2024). Comprehensive Phytochemical Profiling of Ulva lactuca from the Adriatic Sea. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.10.3390/ijms252111711 ↗
21. Esim, N., Dawar, P., Arslan, N.P., Orak, T., Doymus, M., Azad, F., Ortucu, S., Albayrak, S., and Taskin, M. (2024). Natural metabolites with antioxidant activity from micro-and macro-algae. Food Biosci., 62.10.1016/j.fbio.2024.105089 ↗
22. Vinosha, M., Palanisamy, S., Jeneeta, S., Rajasekar, P., Marudhupandi, T., Karthikeyan, M., Mohandoss, S., You, S., and Prabhu, N.M. (2024). Antibacterial, anticancer and antioxidant effects of sulfated galactan from Halymenia dilatata: In vitro and in vivo analysis. Food Biosci., 60.10.1016/j.fbio.2024.104420 ↗
23. Effects of crude polysaccharides from marine macroalgae on the adhesion and biofilm formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus10.1016/j.algal.2022.102646 ↗
24. Patel, A.K., Albarico, F.P.J.B., Perumal, P.K., Vadrale, A.P., Nian, C.T., Chau, H.T.B., Anwar, C., Wani, H.M.U.D., Pal, A., and Saini, R. (2022). Algae as an emerging source of bioactive pigments. Bioresour. Technol., 351.10.1016/j.biortech.2022.126910 ↗
25. Donn, P., Prieto, M.A., Mejuto, J.C., Cao, H., and Simal-Gandara, J. (2022). Functional foods based on the recovery of bioactive ingredients from food and algae by-products by emerging extraction technologies and 3D printing. Food Biosci., 49.10.1016/j.fbio.2022.101853 ↗
26. Monroy-García, I.N., Torres-Romero, S., Castro-Ochoa, L.D., Mendoza-Acosta, A., Viveros-Valdez, E., and Ayala-Zavala, F. (2025). Bioactive Compounds from Marine Macroalgae: A Natural Defense Against Oxidative Stress-Related Diseases. Stresses, 5.10.3390/stresses5010022 ↗
27. Silva, A., Silva, S.A., Carpena, M., Garcia-Oliveira, P., Gullón, P., Barroso, M.F., Prieto, M.A., and Simal-Gandara, J. (2020). Macroalgae as a Source of Valuable Antimicrobial Compounds: Extraction and Applications. Antibiotics, 9.10.3390/antibiotics9100642 ↗
28. Golshany, H., Yu, Q., and Fan, L. (2024). Comparative extraction and antioxidant potential of bioactive compounds from Fucus vesiculosus: Kinetic modeling and UPLC-Q-TOF-MS phenolic profiling. Food Biosci., 57.10.1016/j.fbio.2024.103575 ↗
29. Carvalho, A., Müller, L., Rosas, V., Tesser, M.B., Ventura-Lima, J., Turan, G., Pias, M., and Poersch, L.H. (2025). Evaluation of the Inclusion of the Seaweed Ulva lactuca Produced in an Integrated System with Biofloc in the Diet of Juvenile Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus. Appl. Sci., 15.10.3390/app15126410 ↗
30. Marques, M.L.M., Presa, F.B., Viana, R.L.S., Costa, M.S.S.P., Amorim, M.O.R., Bellan, D.L., Alves, M.G.C.F., Costa, L.S., Trindade, E.S., and Rocha, H.A.O. (2019). Anti-Thrombin, Anti-Adhesive, Anti-Migratory, and Anti-Proliferative Activities of Sulfated Galactans from the Tropical Green Seaweed, Udotea flabellum. Mar. Drugs, 17.10.3390/md17010005 ↗
31. Revealing the diversity of the genus Ulva (Ulvales, Chlorophyta) in southeastern Brazil, with a description of Ulva kanagawae sp. nov10.1080/00318884.2023.2243433 ↗
32. Barata, D. (2004). Clorofíceas Marinhas Bentônicas do Estado do Espírito Santo. [Master’s Thesis, Instituto de Botânica da Secretaria de Estado do Meio Ambiente]. Available online: https://smastr16.blob.core.windows.net/pgibt/2013/09/Diogina_Barata_MS.pdf.
33. Mandalka, A., Cavalcanti, M.I.L.G., Harb, T.B., Fujii, M.T., Eisner, P., Schweiggert-Weisz, U., and Chow, F. (2022). Nutritional Composition of Beach-Cast Marine Algae from the Brazilian Coast: Added Value for Algal Biomass Considered as Waste. Foods, 11.10.3390/foods11091201 ↗
34. Pappou, S., Dardavila, M.M., Savvidou, M.G., Louli, V., Magoulas, K., and Voutsas, E. (2022). Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Ulva lactuca. Appl. Sci., 12.10.3390/app12042117 ↗
35. Horwitz, W. (2000). Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International, AOAC International.
36. Wild blueberry polyphenol-protein food ingredients produced by three drying methods: Comparative physico-chemical properties, phytochemical content, and stability during storage10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.05.042 ↗
37. Ultrasound assisted extraction of selected edible macroalgae: Effect on antioxidant activity and quantitative assessment of polyphenols by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)10.1016/j.algal.2020.102114 ↗
38. Analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of folin-ciocalteu reagent10.1016/S0076-6879(99)99017-1 ↗
39. Intra-laboratory validation of microplate methods for total phenolic content and antioxidant activity on polyphenolic extracts, and comparison with conventional spectrophotometric methods10.1002/jsfa.6706 ↗
40. Rufino, M., Alves, R., Brito, E., Morais, S., Sampaio, C., and Pérez-Jiménez, J. (2007). Metodologia Científica: Determinacão da atividade antioxidante total em frutas pela captura do radical ABTS+. Embrapa Agroindústria Tropical Comunicado Técnico #128, Embrapa.
41. Chen, Q., Pan, X.-D., Huang, B.-F., and Han, J.-L. (2018). Distribution of metals and metalloids in dried seaweeds and health risk to population in southeastern China. Sci. Rep., 8.10.1038/s41598-018-21732-z ↗
42. An overview on the nutritional and bioactive components of green seaweeds10.1186/s43014-023-00132-5 ↗
43. Limiñana, V.A., Benoist, T., Sempere, S.A., Pérez, S.E.M., and Moya, M.S.P. (2023). Chemical composition of sustainable Mediterranean macroalgae obtained from land-based and sea-based aquaculture systems. Food Biosci., 54.10.1016/j.fbio.2023.102902 ↗
44. Chemical composition of red, brown and green macroalgae from Buarcos bay in Central West Coast of Portugal10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.057 ↗
45. Amino acid composition, protein content and calculation of nitrogen-to-protein conversion factors for 19 tropical seaweeds10.1111/j.1440-1835.2002.tb00156.x ↗
46. Kovats and lee retention indices determined by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry for organic compounds of environmental interest10.1002/jhrc.1240090603 ↗
47. Kotb, S.S., Ayoub, I.M., El-Moghazy, S.A., and Singab, A.N.B. (2020). Profiling the Lipophilic Fractions of Pithecellobium dulce Bark and Leaves Using GC/MS and Evaluation of Their Antioxidant, Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Activities. Chem. Biodivers., 17.10.1002/cbdv.202000048 ↗
48. Chemical profile of manually extracted andiroba oil (Carapa guianensis Aubl., Meliaceae) from Mamangal community, located in Igarapé-Miri, Pará, Brazil
49. Comparison of supercritical fluid extraction and ultrasound-assisted extraction of fatty acids from quince (Cydonia oblonga Miller) seed using response surface methodology and central composite design10.1016/j.chroma.2012.06.063 ↗
50. The importance of the omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio in cardiovascular disease and other chronic diseases10.3181/0711-MR-311 ↗
51. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and inflammatory diseases10.1093/ajcn/83.6.1505S ↗
52. Effects of saturated fatty acid consumption on lipoprotein (a): A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials10.1016/j.ajcnut.2024.06.019 ↗
53. A Review of Odd-Chain Fatty Acid Metabolism and the Role of Pentadecanoic Acid (C15:0) and Heptadecanoic Acid (C17:0) in Health and Disease10.3390/molecules20022425 ↗
54. Influence of stearic acid on cholesterol metabolism relative to other long-chain fatty acids10.1093/ajcn/60.6.986S ↗
55. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Ulva fasciata (Green Seaweed) Extract and Evaluation of Its Cytoprotective and Antigenotoxic Effects10.1155/2015/520598 ↗
56. Isolation and molecular characterization of Thraustochytrium strain isolated from Antarctic Peninsula and its biotechnological potential in the production of fatty acids10.1016/j.bjm.2017.01.011 ↗
57. Optimization of lipid extraction from marine green macro-algae as biofuel resources10.1007/s11814-015-0083-1 ↗
58. ω-6 Polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic acid) activate both autophagy and antioxidation in a synergistic feedback loop via TOR-dependent and TOR-independent signaling pathways10.1038/s41419-020-02750-0 ↗
59. Oppedisano, F., Macrì, R., Gliozzi, M., Musolino, V., Carresi, C., Maiuolo, J., Bosco, F., Nucera, S., Zito, M.C., and Guarnieri, L. (2020). The Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Properties of n-3 PUFAs: Their Role in Cardiovascular Protection. Biomedicines, 8.10.3390/biomedicines8090306 ↗
60. Vázquez, J.A., Meduíña, A., Durán, A.I., Nogueira, M., Fernández-Compás, A., Pérez-Martín, R.I., and Rodríguez-Amado, I. (2019). Production of Valuable Compounds and Bioactive Metabolites from By-Products of Fish Discards Using Chemical Processing, Enzymatic Hydrolysis, and Bacterial Fermentation. Mar. Drugs, 17.10.3390/md17030139 ↗
61. Kurniawan, R., Nurkolis, F., Taslim, N.A., Subali, D., Surya, R., Gunawan, W.B., Alisaputra, D., Mayulu, N., Salindeho, N., and Kim, B. (2023). Carotenoids Composition of Green Algae Caulerpa racemosa and Their Antidiabetic, Anti-Obesity, Antioxidant, and Anti-Inflammatory Properties. Molecules, 28.10.3390/molecules28073267 ↗
62. Tjandrawinata, R.R., and Nurkolis, F. (2024). A Comparative Analysis on Impact of Extraction Methods on Carotenoids Composition, Antioxidants, Antidiabetes, and Antiobesity Properties in Seagrass Enhalus acoroides: In Silico and In Vitro Study. Mar. Drugs, 22.10.3390/md22080365 ↗
63. Biochemical composition, nutritional value, and antioxidant properties of seven seaweed species from the Madeira Archipelago10.1007/s10811-017-1074-x ↗
64. Isolation of chlorophylls and carotenoids from freshwater algae using different extraction methods10.1111/pre.12191 ↗
65. Pigment production by Scenedesmus dimorphus using different low-cost and alternative culture media10.1002/jctb.6940 ↗
66. Sun, H., Wang, Y., He, Y., Liu, B., Mou, H., Chen, F., and Yang, S. (2023). Microalgae-Derived Pigments for the Food Industry. Mar. Drugs, 21.10.3390/md21020082 ↗
67. Gateau, H., Solymosi, K., Marchand, J., and Schoefs, B. (2025, July 01). Carotenoids of Microalgae Used in Food Industry and Medicine. Available online: https://core.ac.uk/reader/95356110?utm_source=linkout.
68. Algal pigments: Therapeutic potential and food applications10.1002/fsn3.4370 ↗
69. Rahman, M.M., Rahaman, M.S., Islam, M.R., Rahman, F., Mithi, F.M., Alqahtani, T., Almikhlafi, M.A., Alghamdi, S.Q., Alruwaili, A.S., and Hossain, M.S. (2022). Role of Phenolic Compounds in Human Disease: Current Knowledge and Future Prospects. Molecules, 27.10.3390/molecules27010233 ↗
70. Lomartire, S., Cotas, J., Pacheco, D., Marques, J.C., Pereira, L., and Gonçalves, A.M.M. (2021). Environmental Impact on Seaweed Phenolic Production and Activity: An Important Step for Compound Exploitation. Mar. Drugs, 19.10.3390/md19050245 ↗
71. Nanocomposite hydrogel based on carrageenan-coated starch/cellulose nanofibers as a hemorrhage control material10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117013 ↗
72. Effect of solvent polarity on extraction yield and antioxidant properties of phytochemicals from bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) seeds10.1590/s2175-97902019000417129 ↗
73. Effect of different drying methods on phytochemical content and amino acid and fatty acid profiles of the green seaweed, Ulva spp.10.1007/s10811-018-1686-9 ↗
74. Yap, W.-F., Tay, V., Tan, S.-H., Yow, Y.-Y., and Chew, J. (2019). Decoding Antioxidant and Antibacterial Potentials of Malaysian Green Seaweeds: Caulerpa racemosa and Caulerpa lentillifera. Antibiotics, 8.10.3390/antibiotics8030152 ↗
75. Vinuganesh, A., Kumar, A., Korany, S.M., Alsherif, E.A., Selim, S., Prakash, S., Beemster, G.T.S., and AbdElgawad, H. (2022). Seasonal Changes in the Biochemical Constituents of Green Seaweed Chaetomorpha antennina from Covelong, India. Biomolecules, 12.10.3390/biom12101475 ↗
76. Metabolite profiling, antioxidant, scavenging and anti-proliferative activities of selected tropical green seaweeds reveal the nutraceutical potential of Caulerpa spp.10.1016/j.algal.2018.10.019 ↗
77. Proximate Composition, Total Phenolic Content, and Antioxidant Activity of Seagrape (Caulerpa lentillifera)10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02289.x ↗
78. Pangestuti, R., Haq, M., Rahmadi, P., and Chun, B.-S. (2021). Nutritional Value and Biofunctionalities of Two Edible Green Seaweeds (Ulva lactuca and Caulerpa racemosa) from Indonesia by Subcritical Water Hydrolysis. Mar. Drugs, 19.10.3390/md19100578 ↗
79. Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC): New horizons in relating dietary antioxidants/bioactives and health benefits10.1016/j.jff.2014.12.018 ↗
80. Antioxidant activity of food constituents: An overview10.1007/s00204-011-0774-2 ↗
81. Preliminary screening of antioxidant and cytotoxic potential of green seaweed, Halimeda opuntia (Linnaeus) Lamouroux10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.12.066 ↗
82. Comparison of DPPH and ABTS assays for determining antioxidant potential of water and methanol extracts of Spirulina platensis
83. Effect of solvent, time and temperature on the extraction of phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity of peach (Prunus persica L.) fruit10.1016/j.seppur.2016.01.043 ↗
84. Antioxidant activity of different molecular weight sulfated polysaccharides from Ulva pertusa Kjellm (Chlorophyta)10.1007/s10811-005-9003-9 ↗
85. Extraction and chemical characterization of novel water-soluble polysaccharides from two palm species and their antioxidant and antitumor activities
86. Evaluation of Antioxidant Activity, Total Flavonoids, Tannins and Phenolic Compounds in Psychotria Leaf Extracts10.3390/antiox3040745 ↗
87. Antioxidants and antioxidant methods: An updated overview10.1007/s00204-020-02689-3 ↗
88. Antioxidant activity of three edible seaweeds from two areas in South East Asia10.1016/j.lwt.2007.06.013 ↗
89. Antioxidant activity of dulse (Palmaria palmata) extract evaluated in vitro10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.04.039 ↗