Virtual Reality or Videoconferencing for Online Learning? Evidence from Comparative Meta-Analyses
Source abstract
Abstract
This study compares the effectiveness of virtual reality (VR) and videoconferencing (VC) platforms for online learning. Comparative meta-analyses of 29 articles from 2003 to 2023 (15 for VR, 14 for VC) revealed that both technologies positively affect learning outcomes, with VR demonstrating a larger effect size (ES = 0.913) compared with VC (ES = 0.284). VR proved more beneficial in regular-sized classes, especially for natural science subjects, and excelled in experiential or collaborative learning environments. VC showed a greater impact in smaller classes, with significant variations depending on the program brand and camera options; it also favored natural science. These findings provide valuable guidance for educators and learners in choosing the most suitable technology for different online learning scenarios and shed light on future research in this field.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Impact of AI and Big Data on Business and Society · Technology Adoption and User Behaviour
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Faculty of Artificial Intelligence in Education, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
Funding
National Natural Science Foundation of China
References (94)
Show source-provided references
1. Garlinska, M., Osial, M., Proniewska, K., and Pregowska, A. (2023). The influence of emerging technologies on distance education. Electronics, 12.10.3390/electronics12071550 ↗
2. A review of online course dropout research: Implications for practice and future research10.1007/s11423-010-9177-y ↗
3. Bakhov, I., Opolska, N., Bogus, M., Anishchenko, V., and Biryukova, Y. (2021). Emergency distance education in the conditions of COVID-19 pandemic: Experience of Ukrainian Universities. Educ. Sci., 11.10.3390/educsci11070364 ↗
4. Elmer, T., Mepham, K., and Stadtfeld, C. (2020). Students under lockdown: Comparisons of students’ social networks and mental health before and during the COVID-19 crisis in Switzerland. PLoS ONE, 15.10.31234/osf.io/ua6tq ↗
5. Distance lectures in university studies: Advantages, disadvantages, improvement10.30935/cedtech/10887 ↗
6. Virtual classroom extension for effective distance education10.1109/MCG.2008.19 ↗
7. Lassoued, Z., Alhendawi, M., and Bashitialshaaer, R. (2020). An exploratory study of the obstacles for achieving quality in distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Educ. Sci., 10.10.3390/educsci10090232 ↗
8. Information communication technology during COVID-1910.1080/02615479.2022.2040977 ↗
9. A systematic review of immersive virtual reality applications for higher education: Design elements, lessons learned, and research agenda10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103778 ↗
10. Effectiveness of immersive virtual reality using head-mounted displays on learning performance: A meta-analysis10.1111/bjet.13023 ↗
11. The CAVE: Audio visual experience automatic virtual environment10.1145/129888.129892 ↗
12. Virtual, augmented and mixed reality in K–12 education: A review of the literature10.1080/1475939X.2020.1737210 ↗
13. Effectiveness of virtual reality-based instruction on students’ learning outcomes in K-12 and higher education: A meta-analysis10.1016/j.compedu.2013.07.033 ↗
14. The sense of being there during online classes: Analysis of usability and presence in web-conferencing systems and virtual reality social platforms10.1080/0144929X.2021.1957017 ↗
15. Online site visits using virtual collaborative spaces: A plan-reading activity on a digital building site10.1016/j.aei.2022.101667 ↗
16. Virtual chemical laboratories: A systematic literature review of research, technologies and instructional design10.1016/j.caeo.2021.100053 ↗
17. Immersive virtual-reality computer-assembly serious game to enhance autonomous learning10.1007/s10055-021-00607-1 ↗
18. Effects of VR instructional approaches and textual cues on performance, cognitive load, and learning experience10.1007/s11423-023-10313-1 ↗
19. Status, challenges and trends in videoconferencing platforms10.15837/ijccc.2023.3.5465 ↗
20. Students’ perceptions of e-learning platforms (Moodle, Microsoft Teams and Zoom platforms) in the University of Jordan Education and its relation to self-study and academic achievement during COVID-19 pandemic
21. Students perceptions, system characteristics and online learning during the COVID-19 epidemic school disruption10.4018/IJDET.20210401.oa1 ↗
22. Transitioning from face-to-face to remote learning: Students’ attitudes and perceptions of using Zoom during COVID-19 pandemic10.46328/ijtes.v4i4.148 ↗
23. Exploring multimedia web conferencing
24. Students’ experiences of learning in a virtual classroom
25. Do nonverbal emotional cues matter? Effects of video casting in synchronous virtual classrooms10.1080/08923647.2013.837718 ↗
26. The camera-on or camera-off, is it a dilemma? Sparking engagement, motivation, and autonomy through microsoft teams videoconferencing10.3991/ijet.v17i11.29061 ↗
27. Communication strategies in a multimodal virtual communication context10.1016/j.system.2013.10.016 ↗
28. Narrative as virtual reality 2: Revisiting immersion and interactivity in literature and electronic media10.1080/14794713.2019.1637100 ↗
29. Virtual reality against Zoom fatigue? A field study on the teaching and learning experience in interactive video and VR conferencing
30. Virtual reality as a teaching resource which reinforces emotions in the teaching process10.1177/21582440221118083 ↗
31. Lakka, I., Zafeiropoulos, V., and Leisos, A. (2023). Online virtual reality-based vs. Face-to-face physics laboratory: A case study in distance learning science curriculum. Educ. Sci., 13.10.3390/educsci13111083 ↗
32. Exploring the applicability of virtual reality- enhanced education on extrovert and introvert EFL learners’ paragraph writing10.1186/s41239-022-00334-w ↗
33. An empirical study investigating the effectiveness of integrating virtual realitybased case studies into an online asynchronous learning environment
34. Online music learning based on digital multimedia for virtual reality
35. Vlahovic, S., Suznjevic, M., Pavlin-Bernardic, N., and Skorin-Kapov, L. (2021, January 14–17). The Effect of VR Gaming on Discomfort, Cybersickness, and Reaction Time. Proceedings of the 2021 13th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), Montreal, QC, Canada.10.1109/QoMEX51781.2021.9465470 ↗
36. The effects of spherical video-based virtual reality implementation on students’ natural science learning effectiveness10.1080/10494820.2018.1548490 ↗
37. Virtual reality in K-12 and higher education: A systematic review of the literature from 2000 to 201910.1111/jcal.12538 ↗
38. Edu-Metaverse: A Comprehensive Review of Virtual Learning Environments10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3540944 ↗
39. Dance in Zoom: Using video conferencing tools to develop students’ 4C skills and self-efficacy during COVID-1910.1016/j.tsc.2022.101102 ↗
40. Tao, H., and Feng, B. (2021, January 22–23). Zoom Data Analysis in an Introductory Course in Mechanical Engineering. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Higher Education Advances (HEAd’21), Online.10.4995/HEAd21.2021.12823 ↗
41. The relationship between quality of student contribution in learning activities and their overall performances in an online course10.2478/eurodl-2018-0002 ↗
42. Comparing online and face-to-face performance in scientific courses: A retrospective comparative gender study of year-1 students10.2147/AMEP.S408791 ↗
43. Student learning performance and satisfaction with traditional face-to-face classroom versus online learning: Evidence from teaching Statistics for Business10.1177/20427530211059625 ↗
44. College students’ use and acceptance of emergency online learning due to COVID-1910.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100011 ↗
45. Dixon, M., and Syred, K. (July, January 26). Factors Influencing Student Engagement in Online Synchronous Teaching Sessions: Student Perceptions of Using Microphones, Video, Screen-Share, and Chat. Proceedings of the Learning and Collaboration Technologies. Designing the Learner and Teacher Experience (HCII 2022), Virtual.10.1007/978-3-031-05657-4_15 ↗
46. Petchamé, J., Iriondo, I., and Azanza, G. (2022). “Seeing and being seen” or just “seeing” in a smart classroom context when videoconferencing: A user experience-based qualitative research on the use of cameras. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.10.3390/ijerph19159615 ↗
47. Indergaard, T., and Stjern, B. (2009). Counselling of problem based learning (PBL) groups through videoconferencing. Connecting Health and Humans, IOS Press.10.3233/978-1-60750-024-7-603 ↗
48. Sousa, M. (2021, January 21–23). Modding Modern Board Games for E-Learning: A Collaborative Planning Exercise about Deindustrialization. Proceedings of the 2021 4th International Conference of the Portuguese Society for Engineering Education (CISPEE), Lisbon, Portugal.10.1109/CISPEE47794.2021.9507250 ↗
49. Extending the UTAUT model of tencent meeting for online courses by including community of inquiry and collaborative learning constructs10.1080/10447318.2023.2233129 ↗
50. Establishing class size policies for optimal course outcomes in online undergraduate education programs10.1080/03075079.2023.2216725 ↗
51. Comparing a large- and small-scale online language course: An examination of teacher and learner perceptions10.1016/j.iheduc.2012.07.002 ↗
52. Relationships between Class Size and Teaching: A Multimethod Analysis of English Infant Schools10.3102/00028312039001101 ↗
53. OECD (2021). Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators.
54. An analysis of the virtual classroom: Does size matter? Do residencies make a difference? Should you hire that instructional designer?
55. A systematic review of digital innovations in technology-enhanced learning designs in higher education
56. The effectiveness of VR environment on primary and secondary school students’ learning performance in science courses10.1080/10494820.2024.2312921 ↗
57. A meta-analysis on the effects of technology’s functions and roles on students’ mathematics achievement in K-12 classrooms10.1111/jcal.12611 ↗
58. Immersion and the illusion of presence in virtual reality10.1111/bjop.12305 ↗
59. Assessing knowledge retention of an immersive serious game vs. A traditional education method in aviation safety10.1109/TVCG.2015.2391853 ↗
60. Using head mounted display virtual reality simulations in large engineering classes: Operating vs observing10.14742/ajet.5487 ↗
61. How does desktop virtual reality enhance learning outcomes? A structural equation modeling approach10.1016/j.compedu.2010.06.006 ↗
62. Moro, C., Štromberga, Z., and Stirling, A. (2017). Virtualisation devices for student learning: Comparison between desktop-based (Oculus Rift) and mobile-based (Gear VR) virtual reality in medical and health science education. Australas. J. Educ. Technol., 33.10.14742/ajet.3840 ↗
63. An evaluation for VR glasses system user experience: The influence factors of interactive operation and motion sickness10.1016/j.apergo.2018.08.012 ↗
64. The webcam and student engagement in synchronous online learning: Visually or verbally?10.1007/s10639-022-11050-3 ↗
65. Student disengagement in web-based videoconferencing supported online learning: An activity theory perspective10.1080/10494820.2021.1984949 ↗
66. Student perspectives on camera usage to engage and connect in foundational education classes: It’s time to turn your cameras on10.1016/j.ijedro.2021.100079 ↗
67. Camera use in the online classroom: Students’ and educators’ perspectives10.33422/ejte.v4i2.736 ↗
68. Marquart, M., and Russell, R. (2025, May 06). Dear Professors: Don’t Let Student Webcams Trick You. EDUCAUSE Review, 10 September 2020. Available online: https://er.educause.edu/blogs/2020/9/dear-professors-dont-let-student-webcams-trick-you.
69. Continuance intention mechanism of middle school student users on online learning platform based on qualitative comparative analysis method
70. The COVID-19 and online learning process in Bangladesh10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13912 ↗
71. Use of synchronous virtual classrooms: Why, who, and how?
72. Zhang, F., Zhang, Y., Li, G., and Luo, H. (2024). Using virtual reality interventions to promote social and emotional learning for children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 11.10.3390/children11010041 ↗
73. Zhang, J., Li, G., Huang, Q., Feng, Q., and Luo, H. (2022). Augmented reality in K–12 education: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature from 2000 to 2020. Sustainability, 14.10.3390/su14159725 ↗
74. Reigeluth, C.M. (1999). Instructional-Design Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory, Volume II, Routledge.
75. Design-Based Research and Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments10.1007/BF02504682 ↗
76. The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews10.1136/bmj.n71 ↗
77. Association between Funding and Quality of Published Medical Education Research10.1001/jama.298.9.1002 ↗
78. Appraising the Quality of Medical Education Research Methods: The Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument and the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale-Education10.1097/ACM.0000000000000786 ↗
79. Hedges, L.V., and Olkin, I. (1985). CHAPTER 5—Estimation of a single effect size: Parametric and nonparametric methods. Statistical Methods for Meta-Analysis, Academic Press.10.1016/B978-0-08-057065-5.50010-5 ↗
80. Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557 ↗
81. A power primer10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155 ↗
82. A basic introduction to fixed-effect and random-effects models for meta-analysis10.1002/jrsm.12 ↗
83. Investigating various application areas of three-dimensional virtual worlds for higher education10.1111/bjet.12538 ↗
84. Educational games promote the development of students’ computational thinking: A meta-analytic review10.1080/10494820.2021.1931891 ↗
85. Stop talking and type: Comparing virtual and face-to-face mentoring in an epistemic game10.1111/jcal.12092 ↗
86. On the stress potential of videoconferencing: Definition and root causes of Zoom fatigue10.1007/s12525-021-00501-3 ↗
87. The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results10.1037/0033-2909.86.3.638 ↗
88. Virtual reality and learning: Where is the pedagogy?10.1111/bjet.12135 ↗
89. The role of affordance in the experience of virtual reality learning: Technological and affective affordances in virtual reality10.1016/j.tele.2017.05.013 ↗
90. Zhang, Y., Luo, H., Liu, Y., and Cheng, W. (2023, January 5–7). Is Metaverse Better than Video Conferencing in Promoting Social Presence and Learning Engagement?. Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Intelligent Education and Intelligent Research (IEIR), Wuhan, China.10.1109/IEIR59294.2023.10391262 ↗
91. An Attributional Theory of Achievement Motivation and Emotion10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 ↗
92. Using an avatar-based digital collaboration platform to foster ethical education for university students10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104728 ↗
93. Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media10.3102/00346543053004445 ↗
94. What are the learning affordances of 3-D virtual environments?10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01038.x ↗