Enhancing the Buildability of CSA Cement/OPC-Blended Mortar in 3D Printing: Optimizing CSA Cement and Water Contents Using a Statistical Approach
Source abstract
Abstract
This study examined the influence of the water–binder ratio and calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement replacement on the properties of fresh three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) materials and identified optimized mix proportions to enhance buildability. Experimental analyses included flowability tests, setting time evaluations, green strength assessments, extrusion pressure measurements, and printing tests. Buildability was evaluated using layer strain and interlayer bonding performance as key indicators, while statistical techniques were applied to develop a mixture design that maximized buildability and minimized the number of printing tests required. The experimental results showed that layer strain increased with a higher water–binder ratio and a lower CSA cement replacement ratio, and a similar trend was observed for interlayer bonding performance. The optimized mixture was determined using response surface methodology based on 13 experimental runs, yielding a water–binder ratio of 0.297 and a CSA cement replacement ratio of 3.88%. Verification results indicated that the optimized mixture exhibited superior buildability, with a mean relative error of 7.55% between the measured and predicted values, demonstrating close agreement between actual performance and predicted outcomes. These findings confirmed that the optimization process was effective and practically sound for enhancing the buildability of 3DCP materials.
Source: openalex_inverted_index · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Innovations in Concrete and Construction Materials · Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing Technologies · Innovative concrete reinforcement materials
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (65)
Show source-provided references
1. ASTM International, Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar, ASTM C1437–20, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1520/C1437-20.10.1520/C1437-20 ↗
2. ASTM International, Standard Practice for Mechanical Mixing of Hydraulic Cement Pastes and Mortars of Plastic Consistency, ASTM C305–20, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1520/C0305-2010.1520/C0305-20 ↗
3. ASTM International, Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading), ASTM C78/C78M-22, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1520/C0078_C0078M-22.10.1520/C0078_C0078M-22 ↗
4. ASTM International, Standard Test Method for Time of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Resistance, ASTM C403/C403M-23, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1520/C0403_C0403M-23.10.1520/C0403_C0403M-23 ↗
5. ASTM International, Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil, ASTM D2166/D2166M-24, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1520/D2166_D2166M-24.10.1520/D2166_D2166M-24 ↗
6. Babafemi, A. J., Kolawole, J. T., Miah, M. J., Paul, S. C., & Panda, B. (2021). A concise review on interlayer bond strength in 3D concrete printing. Sustainability, 13(13), Article 7137. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1313713710.3390/su13137137 ↗
7. Bescher, E., Rice, E. K., Ramseyer, C., & Roswurm, S. (2016). Sulfate resistance of calcium sulphoaluminate cement. Journal of Structural Integrity and Maintenance, 1(3), 131–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/24705314.2016.121123510.1080/24705314.2016.1211235 ↗
8. Bhattacherjee, S., Basavaraj, A. S., Rahul, A., Santhanam, M., Gettu, R., Panda, B., Schlangen, E., Chen, Y., Copuroglu, O., & Ma, G. (2021). Sustainable materials for 3D concrete printing. Cement and Concrete Composites, 122, Article 104156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.10415610.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.104156 ↗
9. Bhattacherjee, S., Jain, S., & Santhanam, M. (2024). Investigating the interaction of limestone calcined clay and OPC-based systems with a methyl hydroxyethyl cellulose-based viscosity modifier used for 3D printable concrete. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 36(10), Article 04024333. https://doi.org/10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-1772810.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-17728 ↗
10. Burris, L. E., & Kurtis, K. E. (2022). Water-to-cement ratio of calcium sulfoaluminate belite cements: Hydration, setting time, and strength development. Cement, 8, Article 100032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cement.2022.10003210.1016/j.cement.2022.100032 ↗
11. Buswell, R. A., De Silva, W. L., Jones, S. Z., & Dirrenberger, J. (2018). 3D printing using concrete extrusion: A roadmap for research. Cement and Concrete Research, 112, 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.05.00610.1016/j.cemconres.2018.05.006 ↗
12. De Schutter, G., Lesage, K., Mechtcherine, V., Nerella, V. N., Habert, G., & Agusti-Juan, I. (2018). Vision of 3D printing with concrete—technical, economic and environmental potentials. Cement and Concrete Research, 112, 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.06.00110.1016/j.cemconres.2018.06.001 ↗
13. Ducoulombier, N., Mesnil, R., Carneau, P., Demont, L., Bessaies-Bey, H., Caron, J.-F., & Roussel, N. (2021). The “Slugs-test” for extrusion-based additive manufacturing: Protocol, analysis and practical limits. Cement and Concrete Composites, 121, Article 104074. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.10407410.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.104074 ↗
14. Gołaszewska, M., Gołaszewski, J., & Chmiela, B. (2024). Effect of water to cement ratio on properties of calcium sulfoaluminate cement mortars. Materials, 17(12), Article 2806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1712280610.3390/ma17122806 ↗
15. Hou, D., Chen, D., Wang, X., Wu, D., Ma, H., Hu, X., Zhang, Y., Wang, P., & Yu, R. (2020). RSM-based modelling and optimization of magnesium phosphate cement-based rapid-repair materials. Construction and Building Materials, 263, Article 120190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.12019010.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120190 ↗
16. Huang, T., Li, B., Yuan, Q., Shi, Z., Xie, Y., & Shi, C. (2019). Rheological behavior of Portland clinker-calcium sulphoaluminate clinker-anhydrite ternary blend. Cement and Concrete Composites, 104, Article 103403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.10340310.1016/j.cemconcomp.2019.103403 ↗
17. Hung, C.-C., Atmajayanti, A. T., Meiji, V. C. D., Mo, K. H., & Yoo, D.-Y. (2024). Performance of high-strength green strain-hardening cementitious composites incorporating CSA/CAC cements and GGBS. Structures, 67, Article 107025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2024.10702510.1016/j.istruc.2024.107025 ↗
18. Jiang, Z., Yang, Q., Zhu, Y., Zhang, Y., & Ren, Q. (2022). Evaluating the stiffening effect of CSA and sodium carbonate on the printability of OPC mortar. Construction and Building Materials, 328, Article 127088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.12708810.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127088 ↗
19. Ke, G., Zhang, J., & Liu, Y. (2022). Shrinkage characteristics of calcium sulphoaluminate cement concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 337, Article 127627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.12762710.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127627 ↗
20. Ke, G., Zhang, J., Xie, S., & Pei, T. (2020). Rheological behavior of calcium sulfoaluminate cement paste with supplementary cementitious materials. Construction and Building Materials, 243, Article 118234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.11823410.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118234 ↗
21. Khalil, N., Aouad, G., El Cheikh, K., & Rémond, S. (2017). Use of calcium sulfoaluminate cements for setting control of 3D-printing mortars. Construction and Building Materials, 157, 382–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.10910.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.109 ↗
22. Kim, T.-K., Oh, S., Lee, J., Dong, W.-J., Mak, B., Choi, S., & Shim, C.-S. (2025). Effects of 3D-printed concrete permanent formwork on the flexural behavior of reinforced concrete beams: Experimental and analytical investigations. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 22, Article e04802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2025.e0480210.1016/j.cscm.2025.e04802 ↗
23. Kolawole, J. T., De-Becker, D., Xu, J., Dobrzanski, J., Cavalaro, S., Austin, S., Roussel, N., & Buswell, R. (2022). Selected Test Methods for Assessing Fresh and Plastic-State 3D Concrete Printing Materials. In R. Buswell, A. Blanco, S. Cavalaro, & P. Kinnell (Eds.), Third RILEM International Conference on Concrete and Digital Fabrication (pp. 460–466). Springer.10.1007/978-3-031-06116-5_68 ↗
24. Li, M., Weng, Y., Liu, Z., Zhang, D., & Wong, T. N. (2022). Optimizing of chemical admixtures for 3D printable cementitious materials by central composite design. Materials Science and Additive Manufacturing, 1, Article 16. https://doi.org/10.18063/msamv1i3.1610.18063/msamv1i3.16 ↗
25. Liu, Z., Li, M., Weng, Y., Wong, T. N., & Tan, M. J. (2019). Mixture design approach to optimize the rheological properties of the material used in 3D cementitious material printing. Construction and Building Materials, 198, 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.25210.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.252 ↗
26. Marchon, D., Kawashima, S., Bessaies-Bey, H., Mantellato, S., & Ng, S. (2018). Hydration and rheology control of concrete for digital fabrication: Potential admixtures and cement chemistry. Cement and Concrete Research, 112, 96–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.05.01410.1016/j.cemconres.2018.05.014 ↗
27. Mechtcherine, V., Bos, F. P., Perrot, A., Da Silva, W. L., Nerella, V., Fataei, S., Wolfs, R. J., Sonebi, M., & Roussel, N. (2020). Extrusion-based additive manufacturing with cement-based materials–Production steps, processes, and their underlying physics: A review. Cement and Concrete Research, 132, Article 106037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2020.10603710.1016/j.cemconres.2020.106037 ↗
28. Moelich, G. M., Kruger, J., & Combrinck, R. (2021). Modelling the interlayer bond strength of 3D printed concrete with surface moisture. Cement and Concrete Research, 150, Article 106559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2021.10655910.1016/j.cemconres.2021.106559 ↗
29. Mohan, M. K., Rahul, A., De Schutter, G., & Van Tittelboom, K. (2021). Early age hydration, rheology and pumping characteristics of CSA cement-based 3D printable concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 275, Article 122136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.12213610.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.122136 ↗
30. Montgomery, D. C. (2020). Design and analysis of experiments (10th ed.). Wiley.
31. Montgomery, D. C., & Runger, G. C. (2020). Applied statistics and probability for engineers (7th ed.). Wiley.
32. Mora, G. S., & Moreno, R. (2021). Rheology and statistical optimization of a shear-sensitive fluid as a treatment for circulation loss control. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 205, Article 108830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2021.10883010.1016/j.petrol.2021.108830 ↗
33. Muthukrishnan, S., Ramakrishnan, S., & Sanjayan, J. (2021). Technologies for improving buildability in 3D concrete printing. Cement and Concrete Composites, 122, Article 104144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.10414410.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.104144 ↗
34. Myers, R. H., Montgomery, D. C., & Anderson-Cook, C. M. (2016). Response surface methodology: Process and product optimization using designed experiments (4th ed.). Wiley.
35. Oh, S., & Choi, S. (2023). Effects of superabsorbent polymers (SAP) on the rheological behavior of cement mortars: A rheological study on performance requirements for 3D printable cementitious materials. Construction and Building Materials, 392, Article 131856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.13185610.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131856 ↗
36. Oh, S., Hong, G., & Choi, S. (2021). Literature review on rheological properties and required performances of 3D printable cementitious materials. Journal of the Korean Recycling Construction Resources Institute, 9(1), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.14190/JRCR.2021.9.1.4110.14190/JRCR.2021.9.1.41 ↗
37. Oh, S., Hong, G., & Choi, S. (2023). Determining the effect of superabsorbent polymers, macrofibers, and resting time on the rheological properties of cement mortar using analysis of variance (ANOVA): A 3D printing perspective. Journal of Building Engineering, 75, Article 106967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.10696710.1016/j.jobe.2023.106967 ↗
38. Park, S., Jeong, Y., Moon, J., & Lee, N. (2021). Hydration characteristics of calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement/portland cement blended pastes. Journal of Building Engineering, 34, Article 101880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.10188010.1016/j.jobe.2020.101880 ↗
39. Paul, S. C., Van Zijl, G. P., Tan, M. J., & Gibson, I. (2018). A review of 3D concrete printing systems and materials properties: Current status and future research prospects. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 24(4), 784–798. https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-09-2016-015410.1108/RPJ-09-2016-0154 ↗
40. Pelletier-Chaignat, L., Winnefeld, F., Lothenbach, B., Le Saout, G., Müller, C. J., & Famy, C. (2011). Influence of the calcium sulphate source on the hydration mechanism of Portland cement–calcium sulphoaluminate clinker–calcium sulphate binders. Cement and Concrete Composites, 33(5), 551–561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2011.03.00510.1016/j.cemconcomp.2011.03.005 ↗
41. Reiter, L., Wangler, T., Anton, A., & Flatt, R. J. (2020). Setting on demand for digital concrete–principles, measurements, chemistry, validation. Cement and Concrete Research, 132, Article 106047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2020.10604710.1016/j.cemconres.2020.106047 ↗
42. Reiter, L., Wangler, T., Roussel, N., & Flatt, R. J. (2018). The role of early age structural build-up in digital fabrication with concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 112, 86–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.05.01110.1016/j.cemconres.2018.05.011 ↗
43. Roussel, N. (2018). Rheological requirements for printable concretes. Cement and Concrete Research, 112, 76–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.04.00510.1016/j.cemconres.2018.04.005 ↗
44. Sergis, V., & Ouellet-Plamondon, C. M. (2022). Automating mix design for 3D concrete printing using optimization methods. Digital Discovery, 1(5), 645–657. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2DD00040G10.1039/D2DD00040G ↗
45. Sirtoli, D., Wyrzykowski, M., Riva, P., & Lura, P. (2020). Autogenous and drying shrinkage of mortars based on Portland and calcium sulfoaluminate cements. Materials and Structures, 53, Article 126. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-020-01561-110.1617/s11527-020-01561-1 ↗
46. Strohle, M., Sadique, M., Dulaimi, A., & Kadhim, M. A. (2023). Prospect and barrier of 3D concrete: A systematic review. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, 8(1), Article 21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-022-00975-w10.1007/s41062-022-00975-w ↗
47. Subasi, A., Sahin, B., & Kaymaz, I. (2016). Multi-objective optimization of a honeycomb heat sink using Response Surface Method. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 101, 295–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2016.05.01210.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2016.05.012 ↗
48. Tabachnick BG, Experimental designs using ANOVA, Thomson/Brooks/Cole, Belmont, CA, 2007.
49. Tran, M. V., Le, T. T., Cao, N. T., & Nguyen, T. H. Y. (2025). Sustainable prospect for entire replacement of river sand with recycled glass aggregate in 3D printing concrete: Rheological properties, printability, and alkali-silica reaction. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 37(6), Article 04025164. https://doi.org/10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-1874610.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-18746 ↗
50. Tran, N., Tran, M. V., Tran, P., Nguyen, A. K., & Nguyen, C. Q. (2024). Eco-friendly 3D-printed concrete using steel slag aggregate: Buildability, printability, and mechanical properties. International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials, 18, Article 66. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40069-024-00705-910.1186/s40069-024-00705-9 ↗
51. Trauchessec, R., Mechling, J.-M., Lecomte, A., Roux, A., & Le Rolland, B. (2015). Hydration of ordinary Portland cement and calcium sulfoaluminate cement blends. Cement and Concrete Composites, 56, 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.11.00510.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.11.005 ↗
52. Wang, L., Tian, Z., Ma, G., & Zhang, M. (2020). Interlayer bonding improvement of 3D printed concrete with polymer modified mortar: Experiments and molecular dynamics studies. Cement and Concrete Composites, 110, Article 103571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2020.10357110.1016/j.cemconcomp.2020.103571 ↗
53. Wang, S., Li, B., Zeng, H., Liang, C., & Zhang, G. (2024). Comparison of mechanical strengths and microstructure of Portland cement-calcium sulfoaluminate cement binders with cellulose ethers of different viscosities. Construction and Building Materials, 437, Article 137022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.13702210.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.137022 ↗
54. Wang, S., Wang, Z., Huang, T., Wang, P., & Zhang, G. (2022a). Mechanical strengths, drying shrinkage and pore structure of cement mortars with hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose. Construction and Building Materials, 314, Article 125683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.12568310.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125683 ↗
55. Wang, S., Zhang, G., Wang, Z., Huang, T., & Wang, P. (2022b). Evolutions in the properties and microstructure of cement mortars containing hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose after controlling the air content. Cement and Concrete Composites, 129, Article 104487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2022.10448710.1016/j.cemconcomp.2022.104487 ↗
56. Wolf, J., Jansen, D., Goetz-Neunhoeffer, F., & Neubauer, J. (2021). Relating phase transitions to pore size distributions and mechanical mortar properties in CSA-OPC-C $ based systems–The potential impact of delayed straetlingite formation. Cement and Concrete Research, 147, Article 106496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2021.10649610.1016/j.cemconres.2021.106496 ↗
57. Wolfs, R., Versteege, J., Santhanam, M., Bhattacherjee, S., Bos, F., Robens-Radermacher, A., Muthukrishnan, S., Menna, C., Ozturk, O., Ozyurt, N., Roupec, J., Richter, C., Jungwirth, J., Miranda, L., Ammann, R., Caron, J.-F., de Bono, V., Monte, R., Navarrete, I., … Mechtcherine, V. (2025). Mechanical properties of 3D printed concrete: A RILEM TC 304-ADC interlaboratory study – flexural and tensile strength. Materials and Structures, 58(5), Article 182. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-025-02687-w10.1617/s11527-025-02687-w ↗
58. Xie, C., Cao, M., & Lv, X. (2021). Optimization of calcium carbonate whisker reinforced cement paste for rheology and fracture properties using response surface methodology. Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials & Structures, 44(3), 859–875. https://doi.org/10.1111/ffe.1340310.1111/ffe.13403 ↗
59. Xie, Z., Yao, H., Yuan, Q., & Zhong, F. (2023). The roles of water-soluble polymers in cement-based materials: A systematic review. Journal of Building Engineering, 73, Article 106811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.10681110.1016/j.jobe.2023.106811 ↗
60. Yang, Z., Ye, H., Yuan, Q., Li, B., Li, Y., & Zhou, D. (2021). Factors influencing the hydration, dimensional stability, and strength development of the OPC-CSA-anhydrite ternary system. Materials, 14(22), Article 7001. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma1422700110.3390/ma14227001 ↗
61. Yin, Y., Huang, J., Wang, T., Yang, R., Hu, H., Manuka, M., Zhou, F., Min, J., Wan, H., Yuan, D., & Ma, B. (2023). Effect of hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) on rheology and printability of the first printed layer of cement activated slag-based 3D printing concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 405, Article 133347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.13334710.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133347 ↗
62. Yu, S., Xia, M., Sanjayan, J., Yang, L., Xiao, J., & Du, H. (2021). Microstructural characterization of 3D printed concrete. Journal of Building Engineering, 44, Article 102948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.10294810.1016/j.jobe.2021.102948 ↗
63. Zhang, C., Nerella, V. N., Krishna, A., Wang, S., Zhang, Y., Mechtcherine, V., & Banthia, N. (2021). Mix design concepts for 3D printable concrete: A review. Cement and Concrete Composites, 122, Article 104155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.10415510.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.104155 ↗
64. Zhang, J., Li, G., Ye, W., Chang, Y., Liu, Q., & Song, Z. (2018). Effects of ordinary Portland cement on the early properties and hydration of calcium sulfoaluminate cement. Construction and Building Materials, 186, 1144–1153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.08.00810.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.08.008 ↗
65. Zhang, Y., Qiao, H., Qian, R., Xue, C., Feng, Q., Su, L., Zhang, Y., Liu, G., & Du, H. (2022). Relationship between water transport behaviour and interlayer voids of 3D printed concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 326, Article 126731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.12673110.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126731 ↗