Investigation on Mechanical, Microstructural, and Sustainability Analysis of Ternary Blend Alkali-Activated Concrete
Source abstract
Abstract
Efforts to enrich concrete performance and reduce environmental impact drive the development of alkali-activated concrete (AAC), which eliminates the need for cement. This study investigates the effect of fly ash (FA) and rice husk ash (RHA) on ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) based AAC to produce sustainable concrete. Different AAC mixes were developed using a constant amount of GGBS (50%), with the remaining 50% replaced by FA (50% to 0%) and RHA (0% to 50%) using a 12 M NaOH solution. The test results show that fresh AAC achieves a higher slump using lower RHA with higher FA content. The unit weight of AAC is reduced when using a higher RHA with lower FA content. The research shows that using 40% FA with 10% RHA exhibits superior mechanical properties. Linear regression analysis examines the correlation between compressive strength and both destructive and non-destructive parameters. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess the influence of selected variables (binder and curing age) on the mechanical strength of ternary blend AAC. Microstructural analysis (SEM and FTIR) reveals mechanisms that enhance the strength of the ternary blend AAC. This study also emphasizes the cost-effectiveness and eco-friendliness of ternary blend AAC, utilizing industrial and agricultural waste, and assesses its environmental impact.
Source: openalex_inverted_index · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Concrete and Cement Materials Research · Innovative concrete reinforcement materials · Smart Materials for Construction
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (69)
Show source-provided references
1. Abbass, W., Aslam, F., Ahmed, M., Ahmed, A., Alyousef, R., & Mohamed, A. (2023). Predicting the performance of existing pre-cast concrete pipes using destructive and non-destructive testing techniques. Heliyon, 9, Article e15471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e1547110.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15471 ↗
2. Akbar, M., Hussain, Z., Huali, P., Imran, M., & Thomas, B. S. (2023). Impact of waste crumb rubber on concrete performance incorporating silica fume and fly ash to make a sustainable low carbon concrete. Structural Engineering and Mechanics, 85(2), 000.
3. Akbar, M., Hussain, Z., Imran, M., Bhatti, S., & Anees, M. (2024). Concrete matrix based on marble powder, waste glass sludge, and crumb rubber: Pathways towards sustainable concrete. Frontiers in Materials, 10, Article 1329386.10.3389/fmats.2023.1329386 ↗
4. Akbar, M., Umar, T., Hussain, Z., Pan, H., & Ou, G. (2022). Effect of human hair fibers on the performance of concrete incorporating high dosage of silica fume. Applied Sciences, 13(1), 124.10.3390/app13010124 ↗
5. Amin, M. S., Heikal, M., Negm, H. H., Abu-dief, A. M., & Mohamed, O. A. (2023). Manufacture of eco-friendly cementitious building materials of high performance from Egyptian industrial solid wastes. Construction & Building Materials, 406, Article 133446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.13344610.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133446 ↗
6. Annadurai, S., Rathinam, K., & Kanagarajan, V. (2020). Development of eco-friendly concrete produced with Rice Husk Ash (RHA) based geopolymer. Advanced Concrete Construction, 9, 139–147. https://doi.org/10.12989/acc.2020.9.2.13910.12989/acc.2020.9.2.139 ↗
7. Arnold, M. C., de Vargas, A. S., & Bianchini, L. (2017). Study of electric-arc furnace dust (EAFD) in fly ash and rice husk ash-based geopolymers. Advanced Powder Technology, 28, 2023–2034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2017.05.00710.1016/j.apt.2017.05.007 ↗
8. Arslan, S., Öz, A., Benli, A., Bayrak, B., Kaplan, G., & Aydın, A. C. (2024). Sustainable use of silica fume and metakaolin in slag/fly ash-based self-compacting geopolymer composites: Fresh, physico-mechanical and durability properties. Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy, 38, Article 101512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scp.2024.10151210.1016/j.scp.2024.101512 ↗
9. Asteris, P. G., Skentou, A. D., Bardhan, A., Samui, P., & Lourenço, P. B. (2021). Soft computing techniques for the prediction of concrete compressive strength using Non-Destructive tests. Construction and Building Materials, 303, Article 124450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.12445010.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124450 ↗
10. Aziz, A. A., Nassar, H. F., Al-shemy, M. T., & Mohamed, O. A. (2025). Boosting the mechanical performance and fire resistivity of white ordinary portland cement pastes via biogenic mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Science and Reports, 15(2909), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-86798-y110.1038/s41598-025-86798-y1 ↗
11. Bernal, S. A., Rodríguez, E. D., Mejia De Gutiérrez, R., Provis, J. L., & Delvasto, S. (2012). Activation of metakaolin/slag blends using alkaline solutions based on chemically modified silica fume and rice husk ash. Waste and Biomass Valorization, 3, 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-011-9093-310.1007/s12649-011-9093-3 ↗
12. Cao, R., Li, B., You, N., Zhang, Y., & Zhang, Z. (2018). Properties of alkali-activated ground granulated blast furnace slag blended with ferronickel slag. Construction and Building Materials, 192, 123–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.10.11210.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.10.112 ↗
13. Çelikten, S., Sarıdemir, M., & Özgür Deneme, İ. (2019). Mechanical and microstructural properties of alkali-activated slag and slag + fly ash mortars exposed to high temperature. Construction and Building Materials, 217, 50–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.05.05510.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.05.055 ↗
14. Chen, K., Wu, D., Fei, S., Pan, C., Shen, X., Zhang, C., & Hu, J. (2022). Resistance of blended alkali-activated fly ash-OPC mortar to mild-concentration sulfuric and acetic acid attack. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, 25694–25708. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17555-710.1007/s11356-021-17555-7 ↗
15. Chi, M. (2016). Mechanical strength and durability of alkali-activated fly ash/slag concrete. Journal of Marine Science and Technology, 23, 958–967. https://doi.org/10.6119/JMST-016-0603-110.6119/JMST-016-0603-1 ↗
16. Darsanasiri, A. G. N. D., Matalkah, F., Ramli, S., Al-Jalode, K., Balachandra, A., & Soroushian, P. (2018). Ternary alkali aluminosilicate cement based on rice husk ash, slag and coal fly ash. Journal of Building Engineering, 19, 36–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.04.02010.1016/j.jobe.2018.04.020 ↗
17. Das, S., Alomayri, T., & Adesina, A. (2021). Influence of amorphous raw rice husk ash as precursor and curing condition on the performance of alkali activated concrete. Case Studies in Construction Materials. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e0077710.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00777 ↗
18. El-Hassan, H., Shehab, E., & Al-Sallamin, A. (2021). Effect of curing regime on the performance and microstructure characteristics of alkali-activated slag-fly ash blended concrete. Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, 10, 289–317. https://doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2021.188314510.1080/21650373.2021.1883145 ↗
19. Fang, G., Ho, W. K., Tu, W., & Zhang, M. (2018). Workability and mechanical properties of alkali-activated fly ash-slag concrete cured at ambient temperature. Construction and Building Materials, 172, 476–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.00810.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.008 ↗
20. Fernando, S., Gunasekara, C., Law, D. W., Nasvi, M. C. M., Setunge, S., & Dissanayake, R. (2021). Life cycle assessment and cost analysis of fly ash–rice husk ash blended alkali-activated concrete. Journal of Environmental Management, 295, Article 113140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.11314010.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113140 ↗
21. Ghani, A., Shehata, N., Hamed, U., Mohamed, O. A., Mahmoud, M., Ali, M., & Abdelzaher, M. A. (2025). The role of green buildings in achieving the sustainable development goals. International Journal of Thermofluids, 25, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijft.2024.10100210.1016/j.ijft.2024.101002 ↗
22. Guo, X., Shi, H., & Dick, W. A. (2010). Compressive strength and microstructural characteristics of class C fly ash geopolymer. Cement and Concrete Composites, 32, 142–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.11.00310.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.11.003 ↗
23. Gursel, A. P., Maryman, H., & Ostertag, C. (2016). A life-cycle approach to environmental, mechanical, and durability properties of “green” concrete mixes with rice husk ash. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112, 823–836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.02910.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.029 ↗
24. H.M, T., & Unnikrishnan, S. (2023). Durability and elevated temperature behaviour of geopolymer concrete developed with ground granulated blast furnace slag and sugarcane bagasse ash. Journal of Building Pathology and Rehabilitation. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41024-023-00354-710.1007/s41024-023-00354-7 ↗
25. Hossain, M. M., Karim, M. R., Elahi, M. M. A., & Mohd Zain, M. F. (2020). Water absorption and sorptivity of alkali-activated ternary blended composite binder. Journal of Building Engineering, 31, Article 101370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.10137010.1016/j.jobe.2020.101370 ↗
26. Hunger, M., & Brouwers, H. J. H. (2009). Flow analysis of water-powder mixtures: Application to specific surface area and shape factor. Cement & Concrete Composites, 31, 39–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2008.09.01010.1016/j.cemconcomp.2008.09.010 ↗
27. Ibrahim, S. M., Heikal, M., Metwally, A. M., & Mohamed, O. A. (2023). Positive impact of polymer impregnated on the enhancement of the physico-mechanical characteristics and thermal resistance of high-volume fly-ash blended cement. Construction & Building Materials, 381, Article 131243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.13124310.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131243 ↗
28. IS (2018) 1199 (Part 2):, Fresh concrete—Methods of sampling, testing and analysis—determination of consistency of fresh concrete, Bur. Indian Stand. New Delhi 1199.
29. IS (2013). 13311 Indian Standard, Non-destructive testing of concrete—Methods of test, part 2 rebound hammer, Bur. Indian Stand. New Delhi, 1992.
30. IS (2018) 516 (Part 5/Sec 1) : Hardened concrete—methods of test—ultrasonic pulse velocity testing, Bur. Indian Stand. New Delhi 516.
31. IS (2021). 516 (Part 1/Sec 1) : Hardened concrete—methods of test—compressive, flexural and split tensile strength, Bur. Indian Stand. New Delhi 516.
32. IS (1997). 2386 : Part I, methods of test for aggregates for concrete—particle size and shape, Bur. Indian Stand. New Delhi 2386.
33. IS (1997). 2386 : Part III, Method of Test for aggregate for concrete - Specific gravity, density, voids, absorption and bulking, Bur. Indian Stand. New Delhi 2386.
34. Kanagaraj, B., Anand, N., Johnson Alengaram, U., & Samuvel Raj, R. (2023). Engineering properties, sustainability performance and life cycle assessment of high strength self-compacting geopolymer concrete composites. Construction and Building Materials, 388, Article 131613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.13161310.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131613 ↗
35. Kumar Das, S., Adediran, A., Rodrigue Kaze, C., Mohammed Mustakim, S., & Leklou, N. (2022). Production, characteristics, and utilization of rice husk ash in alkali activated materials: An overview of fresh and hardened state properties. Construction and Building Materials, 345, Article 128341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.12834110.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128341 ↗
36. Md Khalid, S., Tanu, H.M., Shobha, M.S., Mishra, M., Manjula, K. (2025). Sustainable ternary geopolymer concrete with industrial waste: performance modelling, mechanical, microstructural, and sustainability insights. Silicon. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12633-025-03484-4.10.1007/s12633-025-03484-4 ↗
37. Mehta, A., & Siddique, R. (2018). Sustainable geopolymer concrete using ground granulated blast furnace slag and rice husk ash: Strength and permeability properties. Journal of Cleaner Production, 205, 49–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.31310.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.313 ↗
38. Mohamed, O. A., El, S. I., & El Gamal, S. M. A. (2023). Mechanical performance and thermal stability of hardened Portland cement - recycled sludge pastes containing M nanoparticles. Science and Reports, 13(2036), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-29093-y10.1038/s41598-023-29093-y ↗
39. Mohamed, O. A., El‑Gamal, S. M. A., & Farghali, A. A. (2022). Utilization of alum sludge waste for production of eco—friendly blended cement. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 24, 949–970. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-022-01369-x10.1007/s10163-022-01369-x ↗
40. Mohammed, B. S., Haruna, S., Mubarak bn Abdul Wahab, M., & Liew, M. S. (2019). Optimization and characterization of cast in-situ alkali-activated pastes by response surface methodology. Construction and Building Materials, 225, 776–787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.26710.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.267 ↗
41. Mounika, G., Bhaskar, R., Rama, J. K., Madhu, E., Pradeep, N. (2022). Alkali activated concrete using industrial and agro waste-mix proportioning and experimental investigation. In: ASPS conference proceedings, pp. 1327–1331. https://doi.org/10.38208/acp.v1.659.10.38208/acp.v1.659 ↗
42. Mounika, G., Ramesh, B., & Kalyana Rama, J. S. (2020). Experimental investigation on physical and mechanical properties of alkali activated concrete using industrial and agro waste. Materials Today: Proceedings, 33, 4372–4376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.63410.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.634 ↗
43. Mustakim, S. M., Das, S. K., Mishra, J., Aftab, A., Alomayri, T. S., Assaedi, H. S., & Kaze, C. R. (2021). Improvement in fresh, mechanical and microstructural properties of fly ash- blast furnace slag based geopolymer concrete by addition of nano and micro silica. SILICON, 13, 2415–2428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12633-020-00593-010.1007/s12633-020-00593-0 ↗
44. Nuaklong, P., Jongvivatsakul, P., Pothisiri, T., Sata, V., & Chindaprasirt, P. (2020). Influence of rice husk ash on mechanical properties and fire resistance of recycled aggregate high-calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete. Journal of Cleaner Production. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.11979710.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119797 ↗
45. Pan, Z., Tao, Z., Cao, Y. F., Wuhrer, R., & Murphy, T. (2018). Compressive strength and microstructure of alkali-activated fly ash/slag binders at high temperature. Cement and Concrete Composites, 86, 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2017.09.01110.1016/j.cemconcomp.2017.09.011 ↗
46. Patel, Y. J., & Shah, N. (2018). Enhancement of the properties of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag based Self Compacting Geopolymer Concrete by incorporating Rice Husk Ash. Construction and Building Materials, 171, 654–662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.16610.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.166 ↗
47. Pradhan, S. S., Mishra, U. Biswal, S.K. (2023). Influence of RHA on strength and durability properties of alkali activated concrete, In: Materials today proceedings, Elsevier Ltd, pp. 3–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.504.10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.504 ↗
48. Pradhan, S. S., Mishra, U., & Biswal, S. K. (2023d). Parveen, Mechanical and microstructural study of slag based alkali activated concrete incorporating RHA. Construction and Building Materials, 400, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.13268510.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132685 ↗
49. Pradhan, S. S., Mishra, U., & Biswal, S. K. (2024). Parveen, Development of sustainable slag-based alkali-activated concrete incorporating fly ash at ambient curing conditions, Energy. Ecology and Environment, 9, 563–577. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-024-00319-710.1007/s40974-024-00319-7 ↗
50. Pradhan, S. S., Mishra, U., Biswal, S. K., Jangra, P., Pham, T. M., Arora, S., & Lim, Y. Y. (2022). Effects of crumb rubber inclusion on strength, permeability, and acid attack resistance of alkali-activated concrete incorporating different industrial wastes. Structural Concrete, 23, 3616–3630. https://doi.org/10.1002/suco.20210064010.1002/suco.202100640 ↗
51. Pradhan, S. S., Mishra, U., Biswal, S. K., Pramanik, S., Jangra, P., & Aslani, F. (2023c). Effects of rice husk ash on strength and durability performance of slag-based alkali-activated concrete. Structural Concrete. https://doi.org/10.1002/SUCO.20230017310.1002/SUCO.202300173 ↗
52. Pradhan, S. S., Pramanik, S., Mishra, U., Biswal, S. K., & Thapa, S. (2023a). Effect of RHA on mechanical properties of GGBS based alkali activated concrete: An experimental and statistical modelling. Russian Journal of Nondestructive Testing, 59, 767–784. https://doi.org/10.1134/S106183092360037510.1134/S1061830923600375 ↗
53. Prusty, J. K., & Pradhan, B. (2020). Multi-response optimization using Taguchi-Grey relational analysis for composition of fly ash-ground granulated blast furnace slag based geopolymer concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 241, Article 118049. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.11804910.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118049 ↗
54. Rafeet, A., Vinai, R., Soutsos, M., & Sha, W. (2019). Effects of slag substitution on physical and mechanical properties of fly ash-based alkali activated binders (AABs). Cement and Concrete Research, 122, 118–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.05.00310.1016/j.cemconres.2019.05.003 ↗
55. Raj R, S., Arulraj, G. P., Anand, N., Kanagaraj, B., & Lubloy, E. (2024). Influence of nano-fly ash on mechanical properties, microstructure characteristics and sustainability analysis of alkali activated concrete. Developments in the Built Environment, 17, Article 100352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2024.10035210.1016/j.dibe.2024.100352 ↗
56. Revilla-Cuesta, V., Skaf, M., Serrano-López, R., & Ortega-López, V. (2021). Models for compressive strength estimation through non-destructive testing of highly self-compacting concrete containing recycled concrete aggregate and slag-based binder. Construction and Building Materials. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.12245410.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122454 ↗
57. Ruengsillapanun, K., Udtaranakron, T., Pulngern, T., Tangchirapat, W., & Jaturapitakkul, C. (2021). Mechanical properties, shrinkage, and heat evolution of alkali activated fly ash concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 299, Article 123954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.12395410.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123954 ↗
58. Shahrajabian, F., & Behfarnia, K. (2018). The effects of nano particles on freeze and thaw resistance of alkali-activated slag concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 176, 172–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.03310.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.033 ↗
59. Shariati, M., Shariati, A., Trung, N. T., Shoaei, P., Ameri, F., Bahrami, N., & Zamanabadi, S. N. (2021). Alkali-activated slag (AAS) paste: Correlation between durability and microstructural characteristics. Construction and Building Materials, 267, Article 120886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.12088610.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120886 ↗
60. Shehata, N., Mohamed, O. A., Sayed, E. T., Abdelkareem, M. A., & Olabi, A. G. (2022b). Geopolymer concrete as green building materials: Recent applications, sustainable development and circular economy potentials. Science of the Total Environment, 836, Article 155577.10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155577 ↗
61. Shehata, N., Mohamed, O. A., Taha, E., & Ali, M. (2022a). Geopolymer concrete as green building materials : Recent applications , sustainable development and circular economy potentials. Science of the Total Environment, 836, Article 155577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.15557710.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155577 ↗
62. Sun, Y., Liu, Z., Ghorbani, S., Ye, G., & De Schutter, G. (2022). Fresh and hardened properties of alkali-activated slag concrete: The effect of fly ash as a supplementary precursor. Journal of Cleaner Production, 370, Article 133362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.13336210.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133362 ↗
63. Tanu, H. M., & Unnikrishnan, S. (2022). Utilization of industrial and agricultural waste materials for the development of geopolymer concrete—A review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 65, 1290–1297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.19210.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.192 ↗
64. Tanu, H. M., & Unnikrishnan, S. (2023). Mechanical strength and microstructure of GGBS-SCBA based geopolymer concrete. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 24, 7816–7831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.05.05110.1016/j.jmrt.2023.05.051 ↗
65. Umar, T., Yousaf, M., Akbar, M., Abbas, N., Hussain, Z., & Ansari, W. S. (2022). An experimental study on non-destructive evaluation of the mechanical characteristics of a sustainable concrete incorporating industrial waste. Materials, 15(20), 7346.10.3390/ma15207346 ↗
66. Vo, D., Hwang, C., & Yehualaw, M. D. (2020). The influence of MgO addition on the performance of alkali-activated slag-rice husk ash. Journal of Building Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.10160510.1016/j.jobe.2020.101605 ↗
67. Xiao, J., Li, W., Sun, Z., Lange, D. A., & Shah, S. P. (2013). Properties of interfacial transition zones in recycled aggregate concrete tested by nanoindentation. Cement & Concrete Composites, 37, 276–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.01.00610.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.01.006 ↗
68. Zhu, H., Liang, G., Xu, J., Wu, Q., & Zhai, M. (2019). Influence of rice husk ash on the waterproof properties of ultrafine fly ash based geopolymer. Construction and Building Materials, 208, 394–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.03510.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.035 ↗
69. Zhu, H., Zhai, M., Liang, G., Li, H., & Wu, Q. (2021). Experimental study on the freezing resistance and microstructure of alkali-activated slag in the presence of rice husk ash. Journal of Building Engineering, 38, Article 102173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.10217310.1016/j.jobe.2021.102173 ↗