Applications of 3D bioprinting in neurogenic bladder following spinal cord injury: Research and clinical translation to artificial intelligence-empowered prospects

Neurogenic bladder (NB) after spinal cord injury (SCI) remains a major clinical challenge. Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technology offers a systematic solution in this field. This review summarizes its multidimensional applications in post-SCI NB. In basic research, the technology can be used to construct in vitro biomimetic “nerve-bladder” models for mechanism elucidation and high-throughput drug screening. In therapeutic strategies, it enables the fabrication of bioactive scaffolds that guide nerve regeneration and structurally biomimetic bladder tissues, synchronously promoting neural repair and tissue reconstruction. In clinical translation, image-based personalized 3D-printed models have been utilized for surgical planning and simulation. The integration of artificial intelligence further advances personalized design, printing process optimization, and multimodal collaborative research paradigms. Although major challenges remain in mechanistic understanding, manufacturing workflows, ethics, and regulation, 3D bioprinting may help shift NB management from “symptom management” to “functional reconstruction,” presenting tremendous and optimistic possibilities for transferring to the clinical end.