Application of 3D-bioprinted nanocellulose and cellulose derivative-based bio-inks in bone and cartilage tissue engineering

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a modern, computer-aided, design-based technology that allows the layer-by-layer deposition of 3D structures. Bioprinting, a 3D printing technology, has attracted increasing attention because of its capacity to produce scaffolds for living cells with extreme precision. Along with the rapid development of 3D bioprinting technology, the innovation of bio-inks, which is recognized as the most challenging aspect of this technology, has demonstrated tremendous promise for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Cellulose is the most abundant polymer in nature. Various forms of cellulose, nanocellulose, and cellulose derivatives, including cellulose ethers and cellulose esters, are common bioprintable materials used to develop bio-inks in recent years, owing to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, low cost, and printability. Although various cellulose-based bio-inks have been investigated, the potential applications of nanocellulose and cellulose derivative-based bio-inks have not been fully explored. This review focuses on the physicochemical properties of nanocellulose and cellulose derivatives as well as the recent advances in bio-ink design for 3D bioprinting of bone and cartilage. In addition, the current advantages and disadvantages of these bioinks and their prospects in 3D printing-based tissue engineering are comprehensively discussed. We hope to offer helpful information for the logical design of innovative cellulose-based materials for use in this sector in the future.