Three-dimensional printing powered evolution in lung surgery: From precision resection to biomaterial-based functional reconstruction

The complexity and variability of lung anatomy, together with the difficulty of repairing lung tissue defects, have long constrained the progress of lung surgery in the era of precision and individualized treatment. In recent years, three-dimensional (3D) printing, deeply integrated with biomedical materials, has emerged as a disruptive innovation in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering, offering new strategies to overcome these technical bottlenecks. This review summarizes the current status and clinical applications of 3D printing in lung surgery. By enabling the accurate reproduction of patient-specific anatomical models and the fabrication of functional tissue substitutes in combination with bioactive materials, 3D printing provides unprecedented opportunities to address major challenges such as complex lung nodule resection and bronchial repair and reconstruction. Initially confined to the creation of static anatomical models for surgical planning, teaching, and training, the technology has now advanced, especially with the integration of artificial intelligence (AI), toward the development of real-tmie intraoperative navigation guides and customized implants. Collectively, these advances have transformed 3D printing from an auxiliary adjunct into a pivotal driver of personalized approaches in lung surgery, with the potential to reshape surgical paradigms and expand future therapeutic frontiers.