journal article·2025-12-19Open access

Advanced 3D Modeling and Bioprinting of Human Anatomical Structures: A Novel Approach for Medical Education Enhancement

Sergio Castorina, Stefano Puleo, Caterina Crescimanno, Salvatore Pezzino

Applied Sciences· Volume 16· Issue 1

Abstract

Current challenges in anatomical teachings, such as cadaver shortages, ethical limitations, and restricted access to pathological specimens, are increasingly being mitigated by advancing medical technologies, and among these are three-dimensional modeling technology and multi-material bioprinting. These innovations could facilitate a deeper understanding of complex anatomical components while encouraging an interactive learning environment that accommodates diverse educational needs. These technologies have the capacity to transform anatomy education, yielding better-prepared healthcare practitioners. Combining artificial intelligence with acquired medical images makes it easier to reconstruct anatomy and saves time while still being very accurate. This review seeks to thoroughly assess the current landscape of advanced three-dimensional printing, multi-material bioprinting, and related technologies used in anatomical education. It aims to consolidate evidence related to their educational effectiveness and to outline potential pathways for clinical applications and research development.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline

Research context

OpenAlex topics: Anatomy and Medical Technology · Surgical Simulation and Training · Biomedical and Engineering Education

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

Affiliations

Department of Medical, Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies “G.F. Ingrassia”, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy

Mediterranean Foundation “GB Morgagni”, 95125 Catania, Italy

Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Enna “Kore”, 94100 Enna, Italy

References (100+)

Show source-provided references
1. Cadaveric Dissection as an Educational Tool for Anatomical Sciences in the 21st Century10.1002/ase.1649 ↗
2. Valcke, J., Csík, L.B., Säflund, Z., Nagy, A., and Eltayb, A. (2025). Anatomy Education at Central Europe Medical Schools: A Qualitative Analysis of Educators’ Pedagogical Knowledge, Methods, Practices, and Challenges. BMC Med. Educ., 25.10.1186/s12909-025-07722-6 ↗
3. A Comparison of Virtual Reality Anatomy Models to Prosections in Station-Based Anatomy Teaching10.1002/ase.2419 ↗
4. Challenges in Sourcing Bodies for Anatomy Education and Research in Ethiopia: Pre and Post COVID-19 Scenarios10.1016/j.aanat.2024.152234 ↗
5. A Shortage of Cadavers: The Predicament of Regional Anatomy Education in Mainland China10.1002/ase.1788 ↗
6. Willingness toward Organ and Body Donation among Anatomy Professors and Students in Mexico10.1002/ase.1705 ↗
7. Current Status of Cadaver Sources in Turkey and a Wake-up Call for Turkish Anatomists10.1002/ase.1713 ↗
8. Challenges of Access to Cadavers in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMIC) for Undergraduate Medical Teaching: A Review and Potential Solutions in the Form of 3D Printed Replicas10.1186/s41205-025-00277-8 ↗
9. The Italian Law on Body Donation: A Position Paper of the Italian College of Anatomists10.1016/j.aanat.2021.151761 ↗
10. Assessment of Ethical Compliance of Handling and Usage of the Human Body in Anatomical Facilities of Ethiopian Medical Schools10.2147/POR.S321646 ↗
11. Bodies for Anatomy Education in Medical Schools: An Overview of the Sources of Cadavers Worldwide10.1097/ACM.0000000000002227 ↗
12. Global Trends in Cadaver Donation and Medical Education Research: Bibliometric Analysis Based on VOSviewer and CiteSpace10.2196/71935 ↗
13. Teaching Anatomy in the XXI Century: New Aspects and Pitfalls10.1155/2013/310348 ↗
14. A Slide into Obscurity? The Current State of Histology Education in Australian and Aotearoa New Zealand Medical Curricula in 2022–202310.1002/ase.2518 ↗
15. Pezzino, S., Luca, T., Castorina, M., Puleo, S., and Castorina, S. (2025). Transforming Medical Education Through Intelligent Tools: A Bibliometric Exploration of Digital Anatomy Teaching. Educ. Sci., 15.10.3390/educsci15030346 ↗
16. The Educational Value in the Development and Printing of 3D Medical Models—A Medical Student’s Perspective10.1007/s40670-022-01655-1 ↗
17. Wilk, R., Likus, W., Hudecki, A., Syguła, M., Różycka-Nechoritis, A., and Nechoritis, K. (2020). What Would You like to Print? Students’ Opinions on the Use of 3D Printing Technology in Medicine. PLoS ONE, 15.10.1371/journal.pone.0230851 ↗
18. Using 3D Modeling Techniques to Enhance Teaching of Difficult Anatomical Concepts10.1016/j.acra.2015.12.012 ↗
19. Using 3D Printing to Improve Student Education of Complex Anatomy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis10.1007/s40670-022-01595-w ↗
20. Use of 3D Printed Models in Medical Education: A Randomized Control Trial Comparing 3D Prints versus Cadaveric Materials for Learning External Cardiac Anatomy10.1002/ase.1573 ↗
21. Zafošnik, U., Cerovečki, V., Stojnić, N., Belec, A.P., and Klemenc-Ketiš, Z. (2024). Developing a Competency Framework for Training with Simulations in Healthcare: A Qualitative Study. BMC Med. Educ., 24.10.1186/s12909-024-05139-1 ↗
22. Ye, Z., Jiang, H., Bai, S., Wang, T., Yang, D., Hou, H., Zhang, Y., and Yi, S. (2023). Meta-Analyzing the Efficacy of 3D Printed Models in Anatomy Education. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 11.10.3389/fbioe.2023.1117555 ↗
23. Is This Mine to Keep? Three-Dimensional Printing Enables Active, Personalized Learning in Anatomy10.1002/ase.1840 ↗
24. The Impact of Three-Dimensional Printed Anatomical Models on First-Year Student Engagement in a Block Mode Delivery10.1002/ase.1958 ↗
25. Xie, G., Wang, T., Fu, H., Liu, D., Deng, L., Zheng, X., Li, L., and Liao, J. (2025). The Role of Three-Dimensional Printing Models in Medical Education: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. BMC Med. Educ., 25.10.1186/s12909-025-07187-7 ↗
26. Operable, Low-Cost, High-Resolution, Patient-Specific 3D Printed Temporal Bones for Surgical Simulation and Evaluation10.1177/0003489421993733 ↗
27. Innovating Medical Education Using a Cost Effective and Easy-to-Use Virtual Reality-Based Simulator for Medical Training
28. Nguyen, P., Stanislaus, I., McGahon, C., Pattabathula, K., Bryant, S., Pinto, N., Jenkins, J., and Meinert, C. (2023). Quality Assurance in 3D-Printing: A Dimensional Accuracy Study of Patient-Specific 3D-Printed Vascular Anatomical Models. Front. Med. Technol., 5.10.3389/fmedt.2023.1097850 ↗
29. Artificial Intelligence Driven 3D Reconstruction for Enhanced Lung Surgery Planning10.1038/s41467-025-59200-8 ↗
30. The Future of Surgical Lung Biopsy: Moving from the Operating Room to the Bronchoscopy Suite10.21037/ccts.2019.11.03 ↗
31. Modern Diagnostic Imaging Technique Applications and Risk Factors in the Medical Field: A Review10.1155/2022/5164970 ↗
32. Magnetic Resonance Imaging Versus Computed Tomography for Three-Dimensional Bone Imaging of Musculoskeletal Pathologies: A Review10.1002/jmri.28067 ↗
33. Milestones in CT: Past, Present, and Future10.1148/radiol.230803 ↗
34. Current and Novel Imaging Techniques in Coronary CT10.1148/rg.2015140181 ↗
35. Multidetector Computed Tomographic Angiography of the Cardiovascular System10.1136/pgmj.2007.061804 ↗
36. Multidetector Computed Tomography Myocardial Perfusion Imaging During Adenosine Stress10.1016/j.jacc.2006.04.014 ↗
37. Evaluating Multidetector Row CT for Locoregional Staging in Individuals with Locally Advanced Breast Cancer10.1148/ryct.240008 ↗
38. MRI vs. CT for the Detection of Liver Metastases in Patients With Pancreatic Carcinoma: A Comparative Diagnostic Test Accuracy Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis10.1002/jmri.27056 ↗
39. Value of Multidetector Computed Tomography Image Segmentation for Preoperative Planning in General Surgery10.1007/s00464-011-1920-x ↗
40. Prospective and Retrospective ECG Gating for Thoracic CT Angiography: A Comparative Study10.2214/AJR.08.2158 ↗
41. Interventional Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance: State-of-the-Art10.1186/s12968-023-00956-7 ↗
42. CT Angiography: Current Technology and Clinical Use10.1016/j.rcl.2010.02.006 ↗
43. Altmann, S., Abello Mercado, M.A., Ucar, F.A., Kronfeld, A., Al-Nawas, B., Mukhopadhyay, A., Booz, C., Brockmann, M.A., and Othman, A.E. (2023). Ultra-High-Resolution CT of the Head and Neck with Deep Learning Reconstruction—Assessment of Image Quality and Radiation Exposure and Intraindividual Comparison with Normal-Resolution CT. Diagnostics, 13.10.3390/diagnostics13091534 ↗
44. Physical Evaluation of an Ultra-High-Resolution CT Scanner10.1007/s00330-019-06635-5 ↗
45. CT Imaging with Ultra-High-Resolution: Opportunities for Cardiovascular Imaging in Clinical Practice10.1016/j.jcct.2022.02.003 ↗
46. 3D Printing from Microfocus Computed Tomography (Micro-CT) in Human Specimens: Education and Future Implications10.1259/bjr.20180306 ↗
47. 3D Quantification of the Lacunocanalicular Network on Human Femoral Diaphysis through Synchrotron Radiation-Based nanoCT10.1016/j.jsb.2024.108111 ↗
48. Micro- and Nano-CT for the Study of Bone Ultrastructure10.1007/s11914-014-0233-0 ↗
49. Sandrini, C., Lombardi, C., Shearn, A.I.U., Ordonez, M.V., Caputo, M., Presti, F., Luciani, G.B., Rossetti, L., and Biglino, G. (2020). Three-Dimensional Printing of Fetal Models of Congenital Heart Disease Derived From Microfocus Computed Tomography: A Case Series. Front. Pediatr., 7.10.3389/fped.2019.00567 ↗
50. Scott, A.E., Vasilescu, D.M., Seal, K.A.D., Keyes, S.D., Mavrogordato, M.N., Hogg, J.C., Sinclair, I., Warner, J.A., Hackett, T.-L., and Lackie, P.M. (2015). Three Dimensional Imaging of Paraffin Embedded Human Lung Tissue Samples by Micro-Computed Tomography. PLoS ONE, 10.10.1371/journal.pone.0126230 ↗
51. Assessment of Bone Quality Using Micro-Computed Tomography (Micro-CT) and Synchrotron Micro-CT10.1007/BF03026335 ↗
52. Postmortem Microcomputed Tomography (Micro-CT) of Small Fetuses and Hearts10.1002/uog.13330 ↗
53. MicroPET/CT Imaging of an Orthotopic Model of Human Glioblastoma Multiforme and Evaluation of Pulsed Low-Dose Irradiation10.1016/j.ijrobp.2011.01.045 ↗
54. Microcomputed Tomography Provides High Accuracy Congenital Heart Disease Diagnosis in Neonatal and Fetal Mice10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.113.000279 ↗
55. Virtual Pathological Examination of the Human Fetal Kidney Using Micro-CT10.1002/uog.15859 ↗
56. Early Clinical Applications for Imaging at Microscopic Detail: Microfocus Computed Tomography (Micro-CT)10.1259/bjr.20170113 ↗
57. Nano-Computed Tomography: Technique and Applications10.1055/s-0041-106541 ↗
58. The Use of Nano-Computed Tomography to Enhance Musculoskeletal Research10.3109/03008207.2015.1005211 ↗
59. Dual-Energy CT: Minimal Essentials for Radiologists10.1007/s11604-021-01233-2 ↗
60. Dual Energy Computed Tomography for the Head10.1007/s11604-017-0701-4 ↗
61. Dual Energy Imaging in Cardiothoracic Pathologies: A Primer for Radiologists and Clinicians10.1016/j.ejro.2021.100324 ↗
62. Dual Energy CT: A Step Ahead in Brain and Spine Imaging10.1259/bjr.20190872 ↗
63. Dual-Energy CT Evaluation of 3D Printed Materials for Radiotherapy Applications10.1088/1361-6560/acaf4a ↗
64. MB-DECTNet: A Model-Based Unrolling Network for Accurate 3D Dual-Energy CT Reconstruction from Clinically Acquired Helical Scans10.1088/1361-6560/ad00fb ↗
65. Automatic Multi-Organ Segmentation in Dual-Energy CT (DECT) with Dedicated 3D Fully Convolutional DECT Networks10.1002/mp.13950 ↗
66. Overview of Photon-Counted Three-Dimensional Imaging and Related Applications10.1364/OE.546629 ↗
67. Photon-Counting CT Systems: A Technical Review of Current Clinical Possibilities10.1016/j.diii.2024.09.002 ↗
68. Evaluation of a Preclinical Photon-Counting CT Prototype for Pulmonary Imaging10.1038/s41598-018-35888-1 ↗
69. Meloni, A., Maffei, E., Clemente, A., De Gori, C., Occhipinti, M., Positano, V., Berti, S., La Grutta, L., Saba, L., and Cau, R. (2024). Spectral Photon-Counting Computed Tomography: Technical Principles and Applications in the Assessment of Cardiovascular Diseases. J. Clin. Med., 13.10.3390/jcm13082359 ↗
70. Use of Photon-Counting CT and Three-Dimensional Printing for an Intra-Thoracic Retained Ballistic Fragment in a 9-Year-Old10.1007/s00247-025-06185-7 ↗
71. Maier, A., Steidl, S., Christlein, V., and Hornegger, J. (2018). Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Medical Imaging Systems: An Introductory Guide, Springer.10.1007/978-3-319-96520-8 ↗
72. Comparison of MR Cytometry Methods in Predicting Immunohistochemical Factor Status and Molecular Subtypes of Breast Cancer10.2478/raon-2025-0044 ↗
73. Brain Tumor Detection Based on a Novel and High-Quality Prediction of the Tumor Pixel Distributions10.1016/j.compbiomed.2024.108196 ↗
74. Virtual 3D Reconstruction of Complex Congenital Cardiac Anatomy from 3D Rotational Angiography10.1186/s41205-024-00247-6 ↗
75. Uncovered Culprit Plaque Ruptures in Patients with ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction Assessed by Optical Coherence Tomography and Intravascular Ultrasound with iMap10.1016/j.jcmg.2017.03.019 ↗
76. Dynamic Cardiac Imaging as a Preclinical Cardiovascular Pathophysiology Teaching Aid: Facta Non Verba10.1177/20503121231225322 ↗
77. Isotropic 3D Cardiac Cine MRI Allows Efficient Sparse Segmentation Strategies Based on 3D Surface Reconstruction10.1002/mrm.26923 ↗
78. 3D Contrast-enhanced MR Angiography10.1002/jmri.20767 ↗
79. Improved Multislice Perfusion Imaging with Velocity-Selective Arterial Spin Labeling10.1002/jmri.24652 ↗
80. Visceral Artery Aneurysms: Evaluation Using 3D Contrast-Enhanced MR Angiography10.2214/AJR.07.3255 ↗
81. Time-Resolved Contrast-Enhanced MR Angiography: Value of Hemodynamic Information in the Assessment of Vascular Diseases
82. Zero Echo Time Musculoskeletal MRI: Technique, Optimization, Applications, and Pitfalls10.1148/rg.220029 ↗
83. Ultrashort Echo Time and Zero Echo Time MRI at 7T10.1007/s10334-015-0509-0 ↗
84. Spatiotemporal Habitats from Multiparametric Physiologic MRI Distinguish Tumor Progression from Treatment-Related Change in Post-Treatment Glioblastoma10.1007/s00330-021-07718-y ↗
85. Three Contrasts in 3 Min: Rapid, High-Resolution, and Bone-Selective UTE MRI for Craniofacial Imaging with Automated Deep-Learning Skull Segmentation10.1002/mrm.30275 ↗
86. Bücking, T.M., Hill, E.R., Robertson, J.L., Maneas, E., Plumb, A.A., and Nikitichev, D.I. (2017). From Medical Imaging Data to 3D Printed Anatomical Models. PLoS ONE, 12.10.1371/journal.pone.0178540 ↗
87. Güzelbağ, A.N., Baş, S., Toprak, M.H.H., Kangel, D., Çoban, Ş., Sağlam, S., and Öztürk, E. (2025). Transforming Cardiac Imaging: Can CT Angiography Replace Interventional Angiography in Tetralogy of Fallot?. J. Clin. Med., 14.10.3390/jcm14051493 ↗
88. Impact of Slice Thickness, Pixel Size, and CT Dose on the Performance of Automatic Contouring Algorithms10.1002/acm2.13207 ↗
89. Deserno, T.M. (2011). Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine. Biomedical Image Processing, Springer.10.1007/978-3-642-15816-2 ↗
90. Evaluation of Software Tools for Segmentation of Temporal Bone Anatomy
91. Comprehensive Review of 3D Segmentation Software Tools for MRI Usable for Pelvic Surgery Planning10.1007/s10278-019-00239-7 ↗
92. Quantitative Comparison of Freeware Software for Bone Mesh from DICOM Files10.1016/j.jbiomech.2018.12.031 ↗
93. Surgical Planning in Virtual Reality: A Systematic Review10.1117/1.JMI.11.6.062603 ↗
94. Rana, M., Buchbinder, D., Aniceto, G.S., and Mast, G. (2025). Patient-Specific Solutions for Cranial, Midface, and Mandible Reconstruction Following Ablative Surgery: Expert Opinion and a Consensus on the Guidelines and Workflow. Craniomaxillofac. Trauma Reconstr., 18.10.3390/cmtr18010015 ↗
95. Segmentation and Generation of Patient-Specific 3D Models of Anatomy for Surgical Simulation
96. Wendo, K., Behets, C., Barbier, O., Herman, B., Schubert, T., Raucent, B., and Olszewski, R. (2025). Dimensional Accuracy Assessment of Medical Anatomical Models Produced by Hospital-Based Fused Deposition Modeling 3D Printer. J. Imaging, 11.10.3390/jimaging11020039 ↗
97. 3D Printed Testing Aids for Radiographic Quality Control10.1002/acm2.12574 ↗
98. Factors Affecting Dimensional Accuracy of 3-D Printed Anatomical Structures Derived from CT Data10.1007/s10278-015-9803-7 ↗
99. Claudia, C., Farida, C., Guy, G., Marie-Claude, M., and Carl-Eric, A. (2012). Quantitative Evaluation of an Automatic Segmentation Method for 3D Reconstruction of Intervertebral Scoliotic Disks from MR Images. BMC Med. Imaging, 12.10.1186/1471-2342-12-26 ↗
100. Insights into Geometric Deviations of Medical 3d-Printing: A Phantom Study Utilizing Error Propagation Analysis10.1186/s41205-024-00242-x ↗