The Indoor Environment During Swimming Competitions and Its Impact on Construction Materials: Airborne Trichloramine as a Degradation Factor
Source abstract
Abstract
Swimming is one of the most popular forms of recreational sport worldwide, recommended for people of all ages as a healthy activity. While numerous studies have focused on the impact of indoor air quality on the health of pool users, relatively few have addressed how specific airborne parameters in indoor swimming facilities affect the durability of construction materials. This article analyzes the current state of knowledge on the influence of the pool indoor environment on structural reliability, with trichloramine (NCl3) emphasized as a degradation factor. Indoor pool environments are classified as chemically aggressive, due to elevated air temperature (~30 °C), high humidity (often exceeding 60%), and the presence of volatile chlorine compounds released from disinfected water. Our case study demonstrates that during swimming competitions, the average concentration of airborne NCl3 reached a value of 900 µg/m3, with peaks up to 1200 µg/m3, i.e., about ten times higher than on typical usage days. The median trichloramine concertation during the competition was 1071 µg/m3. Such exposure conditions accelerate corrosion processes in stainless steels and other building materials, reducing service life and requiring targeted monitoring and preventive maintenance. Based on the findings, recommendations are provided regarding material selection, highlighting the importance of surface texture, ventilation strategies, and protective measures tailored to periods of intensive facility use.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Water Treatment and Disinfection · Conservation Techniques and Studies · Chemical Analysis and Environmental Impact
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Faculty of Environmental Engineering and Energy, Institute of Environmental Engineering and Building Installations, Poznan University of Technology, pl. Marii Skłodowskiej-Curie 5, 60-965 Poznań, Poland
Institute of Mechanical Technology, Poznan University of Technology, pl. Marii Skłodowskiej-Curie 5, 60-965 Poznań, Poland
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environmental Engineering, Lodz University of Technology, Stefana Żeromskiego 116, 90-924 Łódź, Poland
Funding
Ministry of Science and Higher Education
References (65)
Show source-provided references
1. Mplougoura, A., Klona, K., Mavridou, A., and Mandilara, G.D. (2025). An Assessment of Hazards and Associated Risks in Greek Swimming Pools. Water, 17.10.3390/w17070929 ↗
2. Exposure to Trichloramine and Respiratory Symptoms in Indoor Swimming Pool Workers10.1183/09031936.00024706 ↗
3. Disinfection Byproducts in Swimming Pool: Occurrences, Implications and Future Needs10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.017 ↗
4. Lee, L.T., and Blatchley, E.R. (2022). Long-Term Monitoring of Water and Air Quality at an Indoor Pool Facility during Modifications of Water Treatment. Water, 14.10.3390/w14030335 ↗
5. (2024). Correction to: Association between Exposure to Airborne Trichloramine and Health Effects in Indoor Swimming Pool Workers. Ann. Work Expo. Health, 68, 777.10.1093/annweh/wxae055 ↗
6. What’s in the Pool? A Comprehensive Identification of Disinfection By-Products and Assessment of Mutagenicity of Chlorinated and Brominated Swimming Pool Water10.1289/ehp.1001965 ↗
7. Swimming Pool Disinfection Byproducts: Analytical Characterization of Precursors, Formation and Occurrence, Health Risks, and Future Needs10.1016/j.trac.2023.117385 ↗
8. Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) in Drinking Water and Predictive Models for Their Occurrence: A Review10.1016/j.scitotenv.2003.05.001 ↗
9. 237 Airborne Trichloramine in Swedish Indoor Swimming Pools10.1093/annweh/wxae035.092 ↗
10. A Study on the Corrosion of Stainless Steel Floor Drains in an Indoor Swimming Pool10.1016/j.engfailanal.2017.02.014 ↗
11. Effect of Air Parameters, Water Temperature, and Number of Pool Occupants on Moisture Gains10.1051/e3sconf/20187002006 ↗
12. Study on Water Evaporation Rate from Indoor Swimming Pools10.1051/e3sconf/20172200150 ↗
13. Variability of Chlorination By-Product Occurrence in Water of Indoor and Outdoor Swimming Pools10.1016/j.watres.2012.12.024 ↗
14. Chemical Contaminants in Swimming Pools: Occurrence, Implications and Control10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.012 ↗
15. Occupational Exposures of Airborne Trichloramine at Indoor Swimming Pools in Taipei10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.05.012 ↗
16. Comprehensive Assessment of the Indoor Air Quality in a Chlorinated Olympic-Size Swimming Pool10.1016/j.envint.2019.105401 ↗
17. Papadopoulos, G., Tolis, E.I., and Panaras, G. (2023). Combined Investigation of Indoor Environmental Conditions and Energy Performance of an Aquatic Center. Sustainability, 15.10.3390/su15021318 ↗
18. Corrosion of Materials after Advanced Surface Processing, Joining, and Welding10.1155/2018/3569282 ↗
19. (2014). Stainless Steels—Part 2: Technical Delivery Conditions for Sheet/Plate and Strip of Corrosion Resisting Steels for General Purposes (Standard No. PN-EN 10088-2).
20. Pitting Corrosion of the Stainless Steel Ventilation Duct in a Roofed Swimming Pool10.1016/j.engfailanal.2007.03.006 ↗
21. Pinilla-Melo, J., Flores-Medina, N., Sánchez-Aparicio, L.J., and Aira-Zunzunegui, J.R. (2024). Structural Deterioration and Failure of the Laminated Wooden Roof of a Covered Swimming Pool. Buildings, 14.10.3390/buildings14123794 ↗
22. Material Selection of Safety-Relevant Components in Indoor Swimming Pools10.1002/maco.200390073 ↗
23. Deutsches Institut für Bautechnik (DIBt) (2003). Allgemeine bauaufsichtliche Zulassung Z-30.3-6. Erzeugnisse, Verbindungsmittel und Bauteile aus Nichtrostenden Stählen, Deutsches Institut für Bautechnik (DIBt). Sonderdruck 862.
24. (1998). Stainless Steels—Part 1: List of Stainless Steels (Standard No. PN-EN 10088-1:1998).
25. Głowny Inspektorat Sanitrany (2014). Wytyczne Głownego Insepktoratu Sanitarnego w Sprawie Wymagań Jakości Wody Oraz Warunków Sanitrano-Higienicznych Na Pływalniach, Głowny Inspektorat Sanitrany-Depratament Bezpieczeństwa Zdrowotnego Wody.
26. Kosmač, A. (2013). Safe Use of Stainless Steel in Swimming Pool Environments, Euro Inox. [1st ed.].
27. (2020). Swimming Pool Equipment—Part 1: General Safety Requirements and Test Methods (Standard No. EN 13451-1).
28. Case Studies of Stainless Steel Corrosion in Indoor Swimming Pool Environments10.1179/174327809X409150 ↗
29. Costa, R.D.F.S., Barbosa, M.L.S., Silva, F.J.G., Sousa, S.R., Sousa, V.F.C., and Ferreira, B.O. (2023). Study of the Chlorine Influence on the Corrosion of Three Steels to Be Used in Water Treatment Municipal Facilities. Materials, 16.10.3390/ma16062514 ↗
30. Measurement of Velocity Distribution for Air Flow through Perforated Plastic Foil Ducts10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.09.029 ↗
31. Pitting Corrosion of the Resistance Welding Joints of Stainless Steel Ventilation Grille Operated in Swimming Pool Environment10.1155/2018/9408670 ↗
32. Compression-Shear Behavior and Water Impermeability of Rubber Seal in Precast Concrete Structures10.4186/ej.2020.24.3.137 ↗
33. Messinese, E., Casanova, L., Paterlini, L., Capelli, F., Bolzoni, F., Ormellese, M., and Brenna, A. (2022). A Comprehensive Investigation on the Effects of Surface Finishing on the Resistance of Stainless Steel to Localized Corrosion. Metals, 12.10.3390/met12101751 ↗
34. Effect of Surface Grinding on Chloride Induced SCC of 304L10.1016/j.msea.2016.01.078 ↗
35. Local Corrosion Characteristics of CaS/CaO–MgO–Al2O3 Inclusions in Low-Alloy Steel under Multi-Factor Mechanisms10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.03.113 ↗
36. A Review of Passivity Breakdown on Metal Surfaces: Influence of Chloride- and Sulfide-Ion Concentrations, Temperature, and pH10.1007/s42247-021-00194-6 ↗
37. Ahmad, Z. (2006). Corrosion Prevention by Design. Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control, Elsevier.10.1016/B978-075065924-6/50009-X ↗
38. Dynamic Behavior of Gas-Phase NCl3 and CO2 in Indoor Pool Facilities10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.110088 ↗
39. Full-Scale Multisampling and Empirical Modeling of DBPs in Water and Air of Indoor Pools10.1007/s10661-023-11619-6 ↗
40. Impact of Spectators Attendance on Thermal Ambience and Water Evaporation Rate in an Expansive Competitive Indoor Swimming Pool10.1016/j.csite.2022.102359 ↗
41. Disinfection By-Product Dynamics in a Chlorinated, Indoor Swimming Pool under Conditions of Heavy Use: National Swimming Competition10.1016/j.watres.2011.07.027 ↗
42. Real-Time Measurements of Gas-Phase Trichloramine (NCl3) in an Indoor Aquatic Center10.1021/acs.est.0c07413 ↗
43. Ciuman, P., and Kaczmarczyk, J. (2021). Numerical Analysis of the Energy Consumption of Ventilation Processes in the School Swimming Pool. Energies, 14.10.3390/en14041023 ↗
44. Experimental Validation of the Numerical Model of Air, Heat and Moisture Flow in an Indoor Swimming Pool10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.09.009 ↗
45. Impact of Modified Ventilation Strategies on Water Evaporation Rate and Thermal Comfort in an Indoor Swimming Pool by Numerical Study10.1016/j.buildenv.2024.111462 ↗
46. Proulx, H., and Hallé, S. (2022). A Numerical Study of the Impacts of Outdoor Air Intake and Air Changes per Hour on the Trichloramine Concentrations in a Swimming Pool Enclosure. Front. Built Environ., 8.10.3389/fbuil.2022.957973 ↗
47. Deck Level Air Extraction and Its Impact on Trichloramine Concentrations in an Indoor Swimming Pool: A Numerical Study10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106873 ↗
48. Energy Consumption Decreasing Strategy for Indoor Swimming Pools–Decentralized Ventilation System with a Heat Pump10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.109574 ↗
49. Disinfection By-Products in Swimming Pool Water and Possibilities of Limiting Their Impact on Health of Swimmers10.7494/geom.2019.13.3.71 ↗
50. Research and Numerical Assessment of Design and Construction Errors in the Swimming Pool Facility Structures10.1016/j.engfailanal.2024.108344 ↗
51. Ratajczak, K., and Pobudkowska, A. (2020). Pilot Test on Pre-Swim Hygiene as a Factor Limiting Trihalomethane Precursors in Pool Water by Reducing Organic Matter in an Operational Facility. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.10.3390/ijerph17207547 ↗
52. Definition and Quantification of Initial Anthropogenic Pollutant Release in Swimming Pools10.1016/j.watres.2012.04.012 ↗
53. Investigating the Effects of Design and Management Factors on DBPs Levels in Indoor Aquatic Centres10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.172 ↗
54. Trichloramine in Swimming Pools–Formation and Mass Transfer10.1016/j.watres.2011.02.024 ↗
55. Volatile Disinfection Byproducts Resulting from Chlorination of Uric Acid: Implications for Swimming Pools10.1021/es405402r ↗
56. Modelling the Concentration of Chloroform in the Air of a Norwegian Swimming Pool Facility-A Repeated Measures Study10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.113 ↗
57. Surface Topography and Stress Concentration Analysis for Corroded High Strength Steel Plate10.1016/j.jcsr.2021.106952 ↗
58. Enhancing Corrosion Resistance of Al 5050 Alloy Based on Surface Roughness and Its Fabrication Methods; an Experimental Investigation10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.01.096 ↗
59. Advanced Once-through Flow Cell Methodology for Evaluation of a New Staged Inhibition Concept to Mitigate Corrosion of Carbon Steel in High-Strength Hydrochloric Acid Flow10.1016/j.corsci.2022.110676 ↗
60. Stress Corrosion Cracking Behaviour of Stainless Steels with Respect to Their Use in Architecture, Part 2: Corrosion in the Passive State10.1002/srin.199301566 ↗
61. Susceptibility of Chloride Ion Concentration, Temperature, and Surface Roughness on Pitting Corrosion of CoCrFeNi Medium-entropy Alloy10.1002/maco.202112557 ↗
62. Dynamic Wettability of Complex Fractal Isotropic Surfaces–Multiscale Correlations10.1016/j.triboint.2025.111145 ↗
63. Influence of Corrosion and Surface Roughness on Wettability of ASTM A36 Steels10.1016/j.jcsr.2018.01.023 ↗
64. Pitting Corrosion of Austenitic and Duplex Stainless Steels in Dilute Acids at Elevated Temperature: Effect of Electrolyte Chemistry and Material Microstructure10.1016/j.corsci.2025.112769 ↗
65. Assessment of the Product Carbon Footprint of Office Equipment across the Entire Life Cycle10.34659/eis.2024.89.2.757 ↗