COTS Battery Charge Equalizer for Small Satellite Applications
Source abstract
Abstract
This paper describes the design and implementation of a battery equalizer circuit for small satellites, developed under the New Space philosophy exclusively using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components. The primary objective is to ensure high reliability for mission-critical power systems while adhering to strict cost constraints. In order to achieve this objective, the design incorporates a robust analog control circuit, thereby avoiding the complexities and potential single-point failures associated with digital controllers. A comprehensive study of various cell-balancing topologies was conducted, leading to the selection, hardware implementation, and comparative analysis of the two most suitable candidates. The results of this study provide a validated, cost-effective, and reliable battery equalizer solution for developers of small satellites.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Advanced Battery Technologies Research · Spacecraft Design and Technology · Radiation Effects in Electronics
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Space Power & Electronic System, University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Avinguda de la Universitat d’Elx, s/n, 03202 Elche, Spain
Funding
European Union NextGenerationEU and Generalitat Valenciana
References (47)
Show source-provided references
1. Small Satellites an Overview and Assessment10.1016/j.actaastro.2020.01.034 ↗
2. CubeSat Standardized Modular Assembly Method and Design Optimization10.1016/j.actaastro.2024.01.011 ↗
3. Kulu, E. (2024, January 14–18). CubeSats & Nanosatellites–2024 Statistics, Forecast and Reliability. Proceedings of the 75th International Astronautical Congress, Milan, Italy.10.52202/078365-0069 ↗
4. From New Space to Big Space: How Commercial Space Dream Is Becoming a Reality10.1016/j.actaastro.2019.08.031 ↗
5. Quadrupling the Stored Charge by Extending the Accessible Density of States10.1016/j.chempr.2022.05.004 ↗
6. Luo, W., Yan, X., Pan, X., Jiao, J., and Mai, L. (2024). What Makes On-Chip Microdevices Stand Out in Electrocatalysis?. Small, 20.10.1002/smll.202305020 ↗
7. Nature-Inspired Structural Materials for Flexible Electronic Devices10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00291 ↗
8. Implementation of Commercial Li-Ion Cells on the MarCO Deep Space CubeSats10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.227544 ↗
9. (2003). AEA Technology Powers Mission to Mars. Aircr. Eng. Aerosp. Technol., 75.
10. Barrera, T.P. (2023). Spacecraft Lithium-Ion Battery Power Systems, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.10.1002/9781119772170 ↗
11. Industrial Information Integration in Deep Space Exploration and Exploitation: Architecture and Technology
12. Lithium-Ion Battery Charge Equalization Algorithm for Electric Vehicle Applications10.1109/TIA.2017.2672674 ↗
13. VLSI Design and FPGA Implementation of State-of-Charge and State-of-Health Estimation for Electric Vehicle Battery Management Systems10.1016/j.est.2023.108876 ↗
14. Power Electronics-Based Safety Enhancement Technologies for Lithium-Ion Batteries: An Overview from Battery Management Perspective10.1109/TPEL.2023.3265278 ↗
15. Driving the Future: A Comprehensive Review of Automotive Battery Management System Technologies, and Future Trends10.1016/j.jpowsour.2024.235827 ↗
16. Pascual, C., and Krein, P.T. (1997, January 27). Switched Capacitor System for Automatic Series Battery Equalization. Proceedings of the APEC 97—Applied Power Electronics Conference, Atlanta, GA, USA.
17. A Chain Structure of Switched Capacitor for Improved Cell Balancing Speed of Lithium-Ion Batteries10.1109/TIE.2013.2288195 ↗
18. Double-Tiered Switched-Capacitor Battery Charge Equalization Technique10.1109/TIE.2008.918401 ↗
19. A Delta-Structured Switched-Capacitor Equalizer for Series-Connected Battery Strings
20. An Optimized Mesh-Structured Switched-Capacitor Equalizer for Lithium-Ion Battery Strings10.1109/TTE.2018.2870971 ↗
21. Modeling and Analysis of Series–Parallel Switched-Capacitor Voltage Equalizer for Battery/Supercapacitor Strings10.1109/JESTPE.2015.2418339 ↗
22. Topology, Modeling, and Design of Switched-Capacitor-Based Cell Balancing Systems and Their Balancing Exploration10.1109/TPEL.2016.2584925 ↗
23. Analysis and Optimization of Star-Structured Switched-Capacitor Equalizers for Series-Connected Battery Strings10.1109/TPEL.2017.2787909 ↗
24. Direct Cell-to-Cell Equalizer for Series Battery String Using Switch-Matrix Single-Capacitor Equalizer and Optimal Pairing Algorithm10.1109/TPEL.2022.3147842 ↗
25. Zero-Current Switching Switched-Capacitor Zero-Voltage-Gap Automatic Equalization System for Series Battery String10.1109/TPEL.2011.2181868 ↗
26. Design of Parallel Resonant Switched-Capacitor Equalizer for Series-Connected Battery Strings10.1109/TPEL.2021.3052780 ↗
27. A Modular Fast Cell-to-Cell Battery Voltage Equalizer10.1109/TPEL.2020.2972004 ↗
28. Pre-Flight Qualification Test Procedure for Nanosatellites Using Sounding Rockets10.1016/j.actaastro.2019.01.035 ↗
29. Single Point Failure Free Interleaved Synchronous Buck Converter for Microsatellite Electrolysis Propulsion10.1109/JESTPE.2022.3174358 ↗
30. Breakdown Voltages in Ceramic Capacitors with Cracks10.1109/TDEI.2012.6260022 ↗
31. Analysis and Optimization of Switched-Capacitor DC-DC Converters10.1109/TPEL.2007.915182 ↗
32. Charge Equalization for an Electric Vehicle Battery System10.1109/7.640281 ↗
33. Evaluation of Commercial Li-Ion 18650 Battery Cells for Deep Space Applications10.1016/j.jpowsour.2025.236552 ↗
34. Comprehensive Analysis of Cubesat Electrical Power Systems for Efficient Energy Management10.1007/s43937-025-00069-5 ↗
35. Knap, V., Vestergaard, L.K., and Stroe, D.-I. (2020). A Review of Battery Technology in CubeSats and Small Satellite Solutions. Energies, 13.10.3390/en13164097 ↗
36. Weston, S.V., Burkhard, C.D., Stupl, J.M., Ticknor, R.L., Yost, B.D., Austin, R.A., Galchenko, P., Newman, L.K., and Santos Soto, L. (2025). State-of-the-Art Small Spacecraft Technology, NASA.
37. Lithium Plating in a Commercial Lithium-Ion Battery—A Low-Temperature Aging Study10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.11.065 ↗
38. Sharma, A., and Teverovsky, A. (2007, January 14–17). Effect of Vacuum Environments on Performance and Reliability of Electronic Components and Packages for Space Applications. Proceedings of the 2007 8th International Conference on Electronic Packaging Technology, Shanghai, China.10.1109/ICEPT.2007.4441516 ↗
39. Frankel, H.E. (1969). Effect of Vacuum on Materials, NASA.
40. Validity of the Space-Time Enlargement Law for Vacuum Breakdown10.1016/j.vacuum.2010.05.018 ↗
41. Simulation and Optimization of EMI Filter of Conducted Emission for High Voltage Gain DC-DC Converter10.11591/ijpeds.v15.i2.pp902-912 ↗
42. (2022). Electromagnetic Compatibility (Standard No. ECSS-E-ST-20-07C-Rev.2).
43. Maxwell, J. (2025, June 18). Cracks: The Hidden Defect, Available online: https://www.kyocera-avx.com/docs/techinfo/CeramicCapacitors/cracks.pdf.
44. Lauenstein, J.-M., Topper, A.D., Casey, M.C., Wilcox, E.P., Phan, A.M., Kim, H.S., and LaBel, K.A. (2013, January 8–12). Recent Radiation Test Results for Power MOSFETs. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE Radiation Effects Data Workshop (REDW), San Francisco, CA, USA.10.1109/REDW.2013.6658205 ↗
45. Application of Total Ionizing Dose Radiation Test Standards to SiC MOSFETs10.1109/TNS.2021.3135123 ↗
46. Simulated Space Radiation Effects on Power MOSFETs in Switching Power Supplies10.1109/28.56008 ↗
47. Bowman, C.L. (2013). Design Issues for Using Magnetic Materials in Radiation Environments at Elevated Temperature, NASA.