journal article·2026-01-06Open access

Reproducibility and Environmental Efficiency of Metabolomics Cancer Modeling

Claire Jean-Quartier, Niklas Tscheppe, Stefan Millonig, Lena Klambauer, Andreas Holzinger, Sarah Stryeck, Fleur Jeanquartier

Applied Sciences· Volume 16· Issue 2

Abstract

Sustainability in the context of machine learning (ML) plays an important role for accessible models by both researchers as well as clinicians. This article describes a reproducibility study on PiDeeL, a metabolic-pathway-informed deep learning model. It serves to test the hypothesis that the requirement of a simple provision of all digital artifacts is not sufficient to reproduce the computational experiment(s). The reproduction and modification of the computational model foundational to the previous findings shall promote documentation and evaluation of existing scientific models and confirm their applicability. The modification of the original model is based on measuring emissions of training machine learning models using CodeCarbon. Two different systems with different CPU as well as GPU specifications and Windows Subsystem Linux could be tested after guide and code adaptions due to initial incomplete replication attempts given the threshold of computation completion without error message(s). Emissions equivalent to 0.3–0.6 kg of CO2 per run were shown. Encountered issues along the replication attempts call for refined guidelines on documentation and processing of computational approaches in scientific studies by publishers as well as the scientific community. Thorough peer review including algorithmic reproduction would be necessary to ensure model reusability.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline

Research context

OpenAlex topics: Metabolomics and Mass Spectrometry Studies · Microbial Metabolic Engineering and Bioproduction · Health, Environment, Cognitive Aging

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

Affiliations

Research Data Management, Graz University of Technology, 8010 Graz, Austria

Human-Centered AI Lab, Institute of Forest Engineering, Department of Ecosystem, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Peter Jordan Straße 82, 1190 Vienna, Austria

Institute of Human-Centred Computing, Faculty of Computer Science and Biomedical Engineering, Graz University of Technology, 8010 Graz, Austria

Institute of Medical Informatics, Statistics and Documentation, Medical University Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria

References (61)

Show source-provided references
1. Gupta, U., Kim, Y.G., Lee, S., Tse, J., Lee, H.H.S., Wei, G.Y., Brooks, D., and Wu, C.J. (March, January 27). Chasing carbon: The elusive environmental footprint of computing. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA), Seoul, Republic of Korea.10.1109/HPCA51647.2021.00076 ↗
2. Castaño, J., Martínez-Fernández, S., Franch, X., and Bogner, J. (2023, January 26–27). Exploring the carbon footprint of hugging face’s ml models: A repository mining study. Proceedings of the 2023 ACM/IEEE International Symposium on Empirical Software Engineering and Measurement (ESEM), New Orleans, LA, USA.10.1109/ESEM56168.2023.10304801 ↗
3. PiDeeL: Metabolic-pathway-informed deep learning model for survival analysis and pathological classification of gliomas10.1093/bioinformatics/btad684 ↗
4. Reproducibility in systems biology modelling10.15252/msb.20209982 ↗
5. A call for replication studies10.1177/1091142110385210 ↗
6. Moreau, D., and Wiebels, K. (2023). Ten simple rules for designing and conducting undergraduate replication projects. PLoS Comput. Biol., 19.10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010957 ↗
7. A beginner’s guide to conducting reproducible research10.1002/bes2.1801 ↗
8. Evaluating implementation of the Transparency and Openness Promotion (TOP) guidelines: The TRUST process for rating journal policies, procedures, and practices10.1186/s41073-021-00112-8 ↗
9. National Academies of Sciences, Medicine, Policy, Global Affairs, Board on Research Data, Division on Engineering, and Replicability in Science (2019). Reproducibility and Replicability in Science, National Academies Press.
10. A framework for supporting the reproducibility of computational experiments in multiple scientific domains10.1016/j.future.2025.107924 ↗
11. Challenges to the reproducibility of machine learning models in health care10.1001/jama.2019.20866 ↗
12. Retrieving biodiversity data from multiple sources: Making secondary data standardised and accessible10.3897/BDJ.12.e133775 ↗
13. Improving transparency to build trust in real-world secondary data studies for hypothesis testing—Why, what, and how: Recommendations and a road map from the real-world evidence transparency initiative10.1016/j.jval.2020.04.002 ↗
14. Han, H. (2025). Challenges of reproducible AI in biomedical data science. BMC Med Genom., 18.10.1186/s12920-024-02072-6 ↗
15. The fundamental principles of reproducibility
16. Sharing practices of software artefacts and source code for reproducible research10.1007/s41060-024-00617-7 ↗
17. Enhancing reproducibility for computational methods10.1126/science.aah6168 ↗
18. Promoting an open research culture10.1126/science.aab2374 ↗
19. Replication Study: A coding-independent function of gene and pseudogene mRNAs regulates tumour biology10.7554/eLife.51019 ↗
20. Voets, M., Møllersen, K., and Bongo, L.A. (2019). Reproduction study using public data of: Development and validation of a deep learning algorithm for detection of diabetic retinopathy in retinal fundus photographs. PLoS ONE, 14.10.1371/journal.pone.0217541 ↗
21. Selective Inference: The Silent Killer of Replicability
22. Black-box tests for algorithmic stability
23. Łukaszuk, T., Krawczuk, J., Żyła, K., and Kęsik, J. (2024). Stability of Feature Selection in Multi-Omics Data Analysis. Appl. Sci., 14.10.3390/app142311103 ↗
24. The five pillars of computational reproducibility: Bioinformatics and beyond10.1093/bib/bbad375 ↗
25. Validity of machine learning in biology and medicine increased through collaborations across fields of expertise10.1038/s42256-019-0139-8 ↗
26. Ten quick tips for machine learning in computational biology10.1186/s13040-017-0155-3 ↗
27. Pokutnaya, D., Childers, B., Arcury-Quandt, A.E., Hochheiser, H., and Van Panhuis, W.G. (2023). An implementation framework to improve the transparency and reproducibility of computational models of infectious diseases. PLoS Comput. Biol., 19.10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010856 ↗
28. NCI cancer research data commons: Lessons learned and future state10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-23-2730 ↗
29. A multimodal atlas of tumour metabolism reveals the architecture of gene–metabolite covariation10.1038/s42255-023-00817-8 ↗
30. A computational framework to integrate high-throughput ‘-omics’ datasets for the identification of potential mechanistic links10.1038/s41596-018-0064-z ↗
31. PyCoMo: A python package for community metabolic model creation and analysis10.1093/bioinformatics/btae153 ↗
32. Anton, M., Almaas, E., Benfeitas, R., Benito-Vaquerizo, S., Blank, L.M., Dräger, A., Hancock, J.M., Kittikunapong, C., König, M., and Li, F. (2023). standard-GEM: Standardization of open-source genome-scale metabolic models. bioRxiv.10.1101/2023.03.21.512712 ↗
33. Next-generation metabolic models informed by biomolecular simulations10.1016/j.copbio.2025.103259 ↗
34. A reproducibility crisis for clinical metabolomics studies10.1016/j.trac.2024.117918 ↗
35. Glioma Survival Analysis Empowered with Data Engineering—A Survey10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3065965 ↗
36. Survival prediction of glioblastoma patients—Are we there yet? A systematic review of prognostic modeling for glioblastoma and its clinical potential10.1007/s10143-020-01430-z ↗
37. Application of bioinformatics analysis to construct the prognostic model and immune-related gene characteristics of low-grade glioma10.1007/s12672-025-02639-4 ↗
38. Zhao, Q., and Schouten, G. (2025). How to apply green AI in practice?: Moving from FLOPs to CO2 footprint. Moral Design and Green Technology, Wageningen Academic.10.1163/9789004730779 ↗
39. Gun Kaynar, A.E.C. (2025, October 24). PiDeeL Repository. Available online: https://github.com/ciceklab/PiDeeL.
40. Haverford College, MILA (2025, October 24). CodeCarbon Website. Available online: https://mlco2.github.io/codecarbon/index.html.
41. Haverford College, MILA (2025, October 24). CodeCarbon Methodology. Available online: https://mlco2.github.io/codecarbon/methodology.html.
42. How to estimate carbon footprint when training deep learning models? A guide and review10.1088/2515-7620/acf81b ↗
43. Lottick, K., Susai, S., Friedler, S.A., and Wilson, J.P. (2019). Energy Usage Reports: Environmental awareness as part of algorithmic accountability. arXiv.
44. Google (2025, October 24). Google Colab. Available online: https://colab.research.google.com/.
45. Modeling survival data by using Cox Regression Model10.11648/j.ajtas.20150406.21 ↗
47. Katzman, J.L., Shaham, U., Cloninger, A., Bates, J., Jiang, T., and Kluger, Y. (2018). DeepSurv: Personalized treatment recommender system using a Cox proportional hazards deep neural network. BMC Med. Res. Methodol., 18.10.1186/s12874-018-0482-1 ↗
48. Haverford College, MILA (2025, October 24). CodeCarbon Global Energy Mix. Available online: https://github.com/mlco2/codecarbon/blob/master/codecarbon/data/private_infra/global_energy_mix.json.
49. Haverford College, MILA (2025, October 24). CodeCarbon Repository. Available online: https://github.com/mlco2/codecarbon.
50. GmbH (2025, October 24). Intel® Core™ i7-7700HQ Prozessor. Available online: https://www.intel.de/content/www/de/de/products/sku/97185/intel-core-i77700hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz/specifications.html.
51. GmbH (2025, October 24). Intel® Core™ i9-11900K Prozessor. Available online: https://www.intel.de/content/www/de/de/products/sku/212325/intel-core-i911900k-processor-16m-cache-up-to-5-30-ghz/specifications.html?wapkw=11th%20Gen%20Intel(R)%20Core(TM)%20i9-11900K.
52. Assessing the carbon footprint of language models: Towards sustainability in AI10.1016/j.resconrec.2025.108670 ↗
53. Performance Evaluation of Compute Unified Device Architecture (CUDA) compared to Traditional Central Processing Unit (CPU) Architecture
54. Containers for computational reproducibility10.1038/s43586-023-00236-9 ↗
55. Fischer, R. (2025). Ground-Truthing AI Energy Consumption: Validating CodeCarbon Against External Measurements. arXiv.
56. Rougier, N.P., and Hinsen, K. (2018, January 20). ReScience C: A journal for reproducible replications in computational science. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Reproducible Research in Pattern Recognition, Beijing, China.10.1007/978-3-030-23987-9_14 ↗
57. Reproducibility of computational workflows is automated using continuous analysis10.1038/nbt.3780 ↗
58. Open science–towards reproducible research
59. A time-dependent discrimination index for survival data10.1002/sim.2427 ↗
60. Whitaker, K. (2018). A How to Guide to Reproducible Research, Springer.
61. Kaynar, G., Cakmakci, D., Bund, C., Todeschi, J., Namer, I.J., and Cicek, A.E. (2022). PiDeeL: Pathway-Informed Deep Learning Model for Survival Analysis and Pathological Classification of Gliomas. bioRxiv.10.1101/2022.10.21.513161 ↗