Aflatoxin M1 Levels in Commercial Cows’ Milk in Mexico: Contamination and Carcinogenic Risk Assessment
Source abstract
Abstract
Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), a toxic metabolite of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), is commonly found in cow’s milk (CM) when dairy cattle consume contaminated feed. Chronic exposure to AFM1 poses serious health risks, particularly for children. This study aimed to quantify AFM1 levels in commercial CM available in Mexico and assess the associated carcinogenic risk across six age groups. A total of 23 milk samples were collected between March and July 2023 from supermarkets and convenience stores. AFM1 was measured using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Estimated daily intake (EDI), carcinogenic risk index (CRI), and Monte Carlo simulations (MCS) to model exposure were employed. AFM1 was detected in all samples, with 80% exceeding the legal limits set by Mexican and European regulations. The highest CRI values were observed in children aged 1–4 years (CRI > 5 × 103), indicating an elevated risk. There were no statistically significant differences in AFM1 concentration among different milk or thermal treatments. A cluster analysis revealed patterns related to AFM1 content, price, and processing methods. The widespread detection of AFM1 raises a public health concern, especially for vulnerable populations. This underscores the need for targeted regulatory strategies and improved control of aflatoxins in the dairy production chain.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food · Milk Quality and Mastitis in Dairy Cows · Wheat and Barley Genetics and Pathology
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Área Académica de Nutrición, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, San Agustín Tlaxiaca 42160, Mexico
Área Académica de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Mineral de la Reforma 42184, Mexico
Área Académica de Enfermería, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, San Agustín Tlaxiaca 42160, Mexico
Departamento de Química, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Ciudad de México 09340, Mexico
Departamento de Biotecnología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Ciudad de México 09340, Mexico
References (82)
Show source-provided references
1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2025, February 10). Milk and Dairy Products in Human Nutrition. Available online: https://www.fao.org/publications.
2. Alais, C. (2022). Ciencia de la Leche: Principios de Técnica Lechera, Reverté. [4th ed.].
3. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (2024, November 20). Mycotoxins as Human Carcinogens-the IARC Monographs Classification. Available online: https://monographs.iarc.who.int/.
4. Aflatoxin: A global burden
5. Toxigenic fungi: Which are important?10.1080/mmy.38.s1.17.22 ↗
6. Benkerroum, N. (2020). Aflatoxins: Producing-molds, structure, health issues and incidence in Southeast Asian and Sub-Saharan African countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.10.3390/ijerph17041215 ↗
7. Incidence of aflatoxin M1 in fresh milk from small farms10.1590/1678-457x.06317 ↗
8. Persistence of aflatoxins during milk processing
9. Marchese, S., Polo, A., Ariano, A., Velotto, S., Costantini, S., and Severino, L. (2018). Aflatoxin B1 and M1: Biological properties and their involvement in cancer development. Toxins, 10.10.3390/toxins10060214 ↗
10. EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM), Schrenk, D., Bignami, M., Bodin, L., Chipman, J.K., and del Mazo, J. (2020). Risk assessment of aflatoxins in food. EFSA J., 18, e06040.10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6040 ↗
11. Aflatoxin exposure and child nutrition: Measuring anthropometric and long-bone growth over time in Nepal10.1093/ajcn/nqaa397 ↗
12. Risk assessment of aflatoxin M1 in milk consumed in Brazil
13. Modification of immune function through exposure to dietary aflatoxin in Gambian children10.1289/ehp.5753 ↗
14. Low level aflatoxin exposure associated with greater linear growth in southern Mexico: A longitudinal study10.1111/mcn.12619 ↗
15. Child aflatoxin exposure is associated with poor child growth outcomes: A prospective cohort study in rural Malawi10.1016/j.cdnut.2023.101962 ↗
16. Assessing the risk and consequences of naturally occurring aflatoxins on liver and kidney health in children: A cross-sectional analysis in Lahore, Pakistan10.18332/pht/197411 ↗
17. Mahfuz, M., Hossain, M.S., Alam, M.A., Gazi, M.A., Fahim, S.M., Nahar, B., and Ahmed, T. (2022). Chronic aflatoxin exposure and cognitive and language development in young children of Bangladesh: A longitudinal study. Toxins, 14.10.3390/toxins14120855 ↗
18. Maggira, M., Ioannidou, M., Sakaridis, I., and Samouris, G. (2021). Determination of aflatoxin m1 in raw milk using an HPLC-FL method in comparison with commercial elisa kits—Application in raw milk samples from various regions of Greece. Vet. Sci., 8.10.3390/vetsci8030046 ↗
19. Development and validation of HPLC-FLD method for aflatoxin M1 determination in milk and dairy products10.2478/acs-2023-0010 ↗
20. Aflatoxin M1 detection in raw milk and drinking milk in Hungary by ELISA− A one-year survey10.1016/j.jfca.2023.105368 ↗
21. Aflatoxin M1 occurrence in fluid milk commercialized in Monterrey, Mexico10.1111/jfs.12507 ↗
22. Álvarez-Días, F., Torres-Parga, B., Valdivia-Flores, A.G., Quezada-Tristán, T., Alejos-De La Fuente, J.I., Sosa-Ramírez, J., and Rangel-Muñoz, E.J. (2022). Aspergillus flavus and total aflatoxins occurrence in dairy feed and aflatoxin M1 in bovine milk in Aguascalientes, México. Toxins, 14.10.3390/toxins14050292 ↗
23. Alanís-García, E.; Rodríguez-Serrano, G.M.; Castañeda-Ovando, A. Effect of thermoultrasound on aflatoxin M1 levels, physicochemical and microbiological properties of milk during storage10.1016/j.ultsonch.2018.06.018 ↗
24. Quevedo-Garza, P.A., Amador-Espejo, G.G., Salas-García, R., Ramos-Peña, E.G., and Trujillo, A.J. (2020). Aflatoxin M1 Determination in infant formulae distributed in Monterrey, Mexico. Toxins, 12.10.3390/toxins12020100 ↗
25. Aflatoxin M1 levels in raw and pasteurized milk produced in Guadalajara, Mexico
26. Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in raw, ultra pasteurized and organic milks produced and marketed in Mexico
27. Aflatoxin M1 in pasteurized and ultrapasteurized milk with different fat content in Mexico10.4315/0362-028X-66.10.1885 ↗
28. Norma Oficial Mexicana (2010). NOM-243-SSA1-2010, Métodos de Prueba. Secretaria de Salud. Available online: https://dof.gob.mx/normasOficiales/4156/salud2a/salud2a.htm.
29. Seasonal study of aflatoxin M1 contamination in cow milk on the retail dairy market in Gorgan, Iran10.3390/dairy4040039 ↗
30. Exposure assessment and cancer risk characterization of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) through ingestion of raw cow milk in southern Ghana10.1016/j.toxrep.2022.05.015 ↗
31. Kafle, S., Paudel, M., Shrestha, C., Kathayat, K.B., Sapkota, R.C., Tiwari, A., and Subedi, D. (2024). Aflatoxin M1 Contamination in dairy milk in kathmandu, Nepal. Toxins, 16.10.20944/preprints202409.0591.v1 ↗
32. Aflatoxin M1 contamination in raw milk and its association with herd types in the ten provinces of Southern China10.1080/1828051X.2021.1987159 ↗
33. Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in milk and exposure estimation for its consumption in the Chilean population10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.109677 ↗
34. Assessment of aflatoxins in milk and feed samples and impact of UHT processing on aflatoxins
35. Occurrence of Aflatoxin M1 in raw and pasteurized milk produced in west region of Iran (during summer and winter)
36. Aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products in China
37. De Girolamo, A., Cervato, G., and Pascale, M. (2022). Recent advances in aflatoxin M1 detection by chromatographic and biosensing methods. Toxins, 14.10.3390/toxins14050328 ↗
38. Approaches to the risk assessment of mycotoxins in food
39. A simple and reliable liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for the determination of aflatoxin M1 in milk10.1080/19440049.2012.743041 ↗
40. Rapid and automated analysis of aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products by online solid phase extraction coupled to ultra-high-pressure-liquid-chromatography tandem mass spectrometry10.1016/j.chroma.2015.10.094 ↗
41. International Conference on Harmonisation (ICH) (2025, May 15). Validation of Analytical Procedures: Text and Methodology Q2(R1). Available online: https://database.ich.org.
42. Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición (ENSANUT) (2025, February 28). La Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición. Available online: https://www.saludpublica.mx/index.php/spm/article/view/15087.
43. Norma Oficial Mexicana (1999). NOM-031-SSA2-1999, Para la Atención a la Salud del Niño. Secretaria de Salud. Available online: https://www.cndh.org.mx/DocTR/2016/JUR/A70/01/JUR-20170331-NOR12.pdf.
44. World Health Organization (WHO) (2024, November 20). Child Growth Standards. Available online: https://www.who.int/tools/child-growth-standards/standards.
45. European Commission (EC) (2024, November 04). 466/2001; Setting Maximum Levels for Certain in Foodstuffs. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2001/466/oj/eng.
46. European Commission (EC) (2024, May 19). 2002/657/EC; Implementing Council Directive 96/23/EC Concerning the Performance of Analytical Methods and the Interpretation of Results. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dec/2002/657/oj/eng.
47. Fate of aflatoxin M1 from milk to typical Italian cheeses: Validation of an HPLC method based on aqueous buffer extraction and immune-affinity clean up with limited use of organic solvents10.1016/j.foodcont.2023.110149 ↗
48. HPLC determination of aflatoxin M1 in liquid milk and milk powder using solid phase extraction on OASIS HLB10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.04.037 ↗
49. Van Camp, C., Van Hassel, W.H.R., Abdallah, M.F., and Masquelier, J. (2023). Simultaneous detection and quantification of aflatoxin M1, eight microcystin congeners and nodularin in dairy milk by LC-MS/MS. Chemosensors, 11.10.3390/chemosensors11100511 ↗
50. Determination of mycotoxins in plant-based beverages using QuEChERS and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.02.078 ↗
51. Determination of Aflatoxins M1, M2, B1, B2, G1, G2 and ochratoxin A in infant formulas from Brazil using a modified QuEChERS method and UHPLC-MS/MS10.1007/s12161-023-02477-6 ↗
52. Comisión Nacional del Agua (CONAGUA) (2025, May 14). Sistema de Información Climatológica para México. Available online: https://smn.conagua.gob.mx.
53. Mycotoxins: Factors influencing production and control strategies
54. Aflatoxin contamination of peanuts at harvest in China from 2010 to 2013 and its relationship with climatic conditions10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.06.029 ↗
55. Gruber-Dorninger, C., Jenkins, T., and Schatzmayr, G. (2019). Global mycotoxin occurrence in feed: A ten-year survey. Toxins, 11.10.3390/toxins11070375 ↗
56. Residual unprotection: Aflatoxin research and regulation in Senegal’s postcolonial peanut infrastructures10.1080/14747731.2022.2125524 ↗
57. Pre-harvest management is a critical practice for minimizing aflatoxin contamination of maize10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.08.032 ↗
58. Sub3 inhibits mycelia growth and aflatoxin production of Aspergillus flavus10.1007/s11483-021-09715-6 ↗
59. Assessment of the occurrence of mycotoxins in livestock feeds and feed ingredients
60. Zhu, Z., Cheng, H., Wang, J., Ma, J., Wang, J., Wang, H., and Yang, J. (2025). Occurrence of co-contamination and interaction of multi-mycotoxins in dairy cow feed in China. Toxins, 17.10.3390/toxins17030137 ↗
61. Investigation of feedstuff contaminated with aflatoxigenic fungi species in the semi-arid region in northeast of Iran10.1007/s10661-021-08990-7 ↗
62. Risk assessment scenarios of children’s exposure to aflatoxin M1 residues in different milk types in Greece10.1016/j.fct.2013.02.024 ↗
63. Aflatoxin M1 levels in raw and pasteurized cow’s milk in Jordan
64. Aflatoxin M1: Prevalence and decontamination strategies in milk and milk products
65. Serraino, A., Bonilauri, P., Kerekes, K., Farkas, Z., Giacometti, F., Canever, A., and Ambrus, Á. (2019). Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in raw milk marketed in Italy: Exposure assessment and risk characterization. Front. Microbiol., 10.10.3389/fmicb.2019.02516 ↗
66. Health risk assessment of aflatoxin M1 in infant formula milk in IR Iran10.1016/j.fct.2020.111455 ↗
67. Exposure assessment and risk characterization of aflatoxin M1 through consumption of market milk and milk products in Ludhiana, Punjab10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.107991 ↗
68. Occurrence and risk characterization of aflatoxin M1 in milk samples from southeastern Iran using the margin of exposure approach10.1002/fsn3.3634 ↗
69. Farkas, Z., Kerekes, K., Ambrus, Á., Süth, M., Peles, F., Pusztahelyi, T., and Jóźwiak, Á.B. (2022). Probabilistic modeling and risk characterization of the chronic aflatoxin M1 exposure of Hungarian consumers. Front. Microbiol., 13.10.3389/fmicb.2022.1000688 ↗
70. Salas, R., Acosta, N., Garza, A.D.J., Tijerina, A., Dávila, R., Jiménez-Salas, Z., and Trujillo, A.J. (2022). Levels of aflatoxin M1 in breast Milk of lactating mothers in Monterrey, Mexico: Exposure and health risk assessment of newborns. Toxins, 14.10.3390/toxins14030194 ↗
71. Post-harvest operations and aflatoxin levels in rice (Oryza sativa)10.1016/j.cropro.2015.09.011 ↗
72. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (2024, December 17). Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Aflatoxins. Available online: https://monographs.iarc.who.int/.
73. Preliminary sampling of aflatoxin M1 contamination in raw milk from dairy farms using feed ingredients from Rwanda10.1007/s12550-022-00454-2 ↗
74. Occurrence and potential health risk of aflatoxin M1 in raw, pasteurized, and UHT milk in Thailand10.1163/18750796-20232834 ↗
75. On the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products10.1016/j.fct.2007.10.005 ↗
76. Dairy farmers’ satisfaction with the price paid by processors in competitive markets10.3168/jds.2024-25737 ↗
77. The influence of price, product quality and promotion on customers purchase intention of pasteurized milk products
78. Evaluación de aflatoxina M1 en leche orgánica producida en Tecpatán, Chiapas, México
79. Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in conventional and organic milk offered for sale in Italy10.1007/s12550-016-0256-8 ↗
80. Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in organic dairy products10.3920/QAS2012.0147 ↗
81. Yang, X., Liu, B., Zhang, L., Wang, X., Xie, J., and Liang, J. (2025). Spatial distribution and dietary risk assessment of aflatoxins in raw milk and dairy feedstuff samples from different climate zones in China. Toxins, 17.10.3390/toxins17010041 ↗
82. Seasonally feed-related aflatoxins B1 and M1 spread in semiarid industrial dairy herd and its deteriorating impacts on food and immunity