journal article·2026-02-04Open access

Fake News Detection: It’s All in the Data!

Soveatin Kuntur, Anna Wróblewska, Maria Ganzha, Marcin Paprzycki, Shelly Sachdeva

Applied Sciences· Volume 16· Issue 3

Abstract

This brief survey acts as a fundamental resource for researchers beginning their exploration into fake news detection. It emphasizes the importance of dataset quality and diversity in enhancing the effectiveness of detection models, detailing key features, labeling systems, and prevalent biases. It also presents the challenges and limitations. By addressing ethical considerations (such as privacy and consent, societal impacts, transparency, and accountability) and best practices (annotation methodologies, real-world dynamics, reliability, and validity), we offer a thorough overview of current datasets. Additionally, our contribution includes a GitHub repository that aggregates publicly available datasets into a single, easily accessible portal, thereby supporting further research and development in the fight against fake news.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline

Research context

OpenAlex topics: Misinformation and Its Impacts · Spam and Phishing Detection · Big Data and Digital Economy

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

Affiliations

Faculty of Mathematics and Information Science, Warsaw University of Technology, Plac Politechniki 1, 00-661 Warsaw, Poland

Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Newelska 6, 01-447 Warsaw, Poland

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Zone P1, Plot No. FA7, GT Karnal Rd., Delhi 110036, India

Funding

Horizon Europe grant OMINO · Polish Ministry of Education and Science

References (100+)

Show source-provided references
1. The science of fake news10.1126/science.aao2998 ↗
2. Beyond misinformation: Understanding and coping with the “post-truth” era10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.008 ↗
3. The responsibility of social media in times of societal and political manipulation10.1016/j.ejor.2020.09.020 ↗
4. Shu, K., Wang, S., and Liu, H. (2019). Beyond news contents: The role of social context for fake news detection. Proceedings of the Twelfth ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining, Association for Computing Machinery.10.1145/3289600.3290994 ↗
5. Coaid-deep: An optimized intelligent framework for automated detecting COVID-19 misleading information on twitter10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3058066 ↗
6. Detecting fake news with capsule neural networks10.1016/j.asoc.2020.106991 ↗
7. Truică, C.O., and Apostol, E.S. (2023). It’s all in the embedding! fake news detection using document embeddings. Mathematics, 11.10.3390/math11030508 ↗
8. Not all fake news is semantically similar: Contextual semantic representation learning for multimodal fake news detection10.1016/j.ipm.2023.103564 ↗
9. ConFake: Fake news identification using content based features10.1007/s11042-023-15792-1 ↗
10. Lai, J., Yang, X., Luo, W., Zhou, L., Li, L., Wang, Y., and Shi, X. (2024). RumorLLM: A Rumor Large Language Model-Based Fake-News-Detection Data-Augmentation Approach. Appl. Sci., 14.10.3390/app14083532 ↗
11. Misinformation in social media: Definition, manipulation, and detection10.1145/3373464.3373475 ↗
12. What is disinformation?10.1353/lib.2015.0014 ↗
13. Shu, K., Mahudeswaran, D., Wang, S., Lee, D., and Liu, H. (2018). FakeNewsNet: A Data Repository with News Content, Social Context and Dynamic Information for Studying Fake News on Social Media. arXiv.
14. Hanselowski, A., PVS, A., Schiller, B., Caspelherr, F., Chaudhuri, D., Meyer, C.M., and Gurevych, I. (2018). A retrospective analysis of the fake news challenge stance detection task. arXiv.
15. Fake news detection on social media: A data mining perspective10.1145/3137597.3137600 ↗
16. Zhou, X., and Zafarani, R. (2018). Fake news: A survey of research, detection methods, and opportunities. arXiv.
17. A survey of fake news: Fundamental theories, detection methods, and opportunities10.1145/3395046 ↗
18. Kumar, S., and Shah, N. (2018). False information on web and social media: A survey. arXiv.
19. Credbank: A large-scale social media corpus with associated credibility annotations10.1609/icwsm.v9i1.14625 ↗
20. Zubiaga, A., Liakata, M., Procter, R., Wong Sak Hoi, G., and Tolmie, P. (2016). Analysing how people orient to and spread rumours in social media by looking at conversational threads. PloS ONE, 11.10.1371/journal.pone.0150989 ↗
21. Tacchini, E., Ballarin, G., Della Vedova, M.L., Moret, S., and De Alfaro, L. (2017). Some like it hoax: Automated fake news detection in social networks. arXiv.
22. Wang, W.Y. (2017). “Liar, liar pants on fire”: A new benchmark dataset for fake news detection. arXiv.10.18653/v1/P17-2067 ↗
23. This just in: Fake news packs a lot in title, uses simpler, repetitive content in text body, more similar to satire than real news10.1609/icwsm.v11i1.14976 ↗
24. Buzzface: A news veracity dataset with facebook user commentary and egos10.1609/icwsm.v12i1.14985 ↗
25. A framework for fake review detection in online consumer electronics retailers10.1016/j.ipm.2019.03.002 ↗
26. Big Data and quality data for fake news and misinformation detection10.1177/2053951719843310 ↗
27. NELA-GT-2018: A large multi-labelled news dataset for the study of misinformation in news articles10.1609/icwsm.v13i01.3261 ↗
28. A corpus of debunked and verified user-generated videos10.1108/OIR-03-2018-0101 ↗
29. Detection and visualization of misleading content on Twitter10.1007/s13735-017-0143-x ↗
30. Calzolari, N., Béchet, F., Blache, P., Choukri, K., Cieri, C., Declerck, T., Goggi, S., Isahara, H., Maegaard, B., and Mariani, J. (2020). Fakeddit: A New Multimodal Benchmark Dataset for Fine-grained Fake News Detection. Proceedings of the Twelfth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference, European Language Resources Association.
31. Graham, Y., and Purver, M. (2024). M4: Multi-generator, Multi-domain, and Multi-lingual Black-Box Machine-Generated Text Detection. Proceedings of the 18th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers), Association for Computational Linguistics.
32. SceneFND: Multimodal fake news detection by modelling scene context information10.1177/01655515221087683 ↗
33. Ali, R., Farhat, T., Abdullah, S., Akram, S., Alhajlah, M., Mahmood, A., and Iqbal, M.A. (2023). Deep learning for sarcasm identification in news headlines. Appl. Sci., 13.10.3390/app13095586 ↗
34. Valiaiev, D. (2024). Detection of Machine-Generated Text: Literature Survey. arXiv.
35. A comprehensive survey of fake news in social networks: Attributes, features, and detection approaches10.1016/j.jksuci.2023.101571 ↗
36. Linguistic features based framework for automatic fake news detection10.1016/j.cie.2022.108432 ↗
37. Linguistic feature based learning model for fake news detection and classification10.1016/j.eswa.2020.114171 ↗
38. Chakraborty, A., Paranjape, B., Kakarla, S., and Ganguly, N. (2016). Stop clickbait: Detecting and preventing clickbaits in online news media. 2016 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining (ASONAM), IEEE.10.1109/ASONAM.2016.7752207 ↗
39. Jin, Z., Cao, J., Guo, H., Zhang, Y., and Luo, J. (2017). Multimodal fusion with recurrent neural networks for rumor detection on microblogs. Proceedings of the 25th ACM International Conference on Multimedia, Association for Computing Machinery.10.1145/3123266.3123454 ↗
40. Ghanem, B., Rosso, P., and Rangel, F. (2018). Stance detection in fake news a combined feature representation. Proceedings of the First Workshop on Fact Extraction and VERification (FEVER), Association for Computational Linguistics.10.18653/v1/W18-5510 ↗
41. Baly, R., Karadzhov, G., Alexandrov, D., Glass, J., and Nakov, P. (2018). Predicting factuality of reporting and bias of news media sources. arXiv.10.18653/v1/D18-1389 ↗
42. A Transformer-Based Approach to Multilingual Fake News Detection in Low-Resource Languages
43. Behind the cues: A benchmarking study for fake news detection10.1016/j.eswa.2019.03.036 ↗
44. A comparison of machine learning algorithms in fake news detection
45. Fake news detection in multiple platforms and languages10.1016/j.eswa.2020.113503 ↗
46. FakeNewsIndia: A benchmark dataset of fake news incidents in India, collection methodology and impact assessment in social media10.1016/j.comcom.2022.01.003 ↗
47. Shu, K., Zhou, X., Wang, S., Zafarani, R., and Liu, H. (2019). The role of user profiles for fake news detection. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining, Association for Computing Machinery.10.1145/3341161.3342927 ↗
48. Weak supervision for fake news detection via reinforcement learning10.1609/aaai.v34i01.5389 ↗
49. The class imbalance problem: A systematic study10.3233/IDA-2002-6504 ↗
50. Learning from imbalanced data10.1109/TKDE.2008.239 ↗
51. Rout, J., Mishra, M., and Saikia, M.J. (2025). Towards Reliable Fake News Detection: Enhanced Attention-Based Transformer Model. J. Cybersecur. Priv., 5.10.3390/jcp5030043 ↗
52. Advancing fake news combating using machine learning: A hybrid model approach10.1007/s10115-025-02588-y ↗
53. Li, F., Zhang, H., Lian, Z., and Wang, S. (2024). Fake news detection based on contrast learning and cascading attention. 2024 IEEE Cyber Science and Technology Congress (CyberSciTech), IEEE.10.1109/CyberSciTech64112.2024.00055 ↗
54. Towards Effective and Transferable Detection for Multi-modal Fake News in the Social Media Stream10.1109/TKDE.2025.3609045 ↗
55. Wang, L., Zhang, C., Xu, H., Xu, Y., Xu, X., and Wang, S. (2023). Cross-modal contrastive learning for multimodal fake news detection. Proceedings of the 31st ACM International Conference on Multimedia, Association for Computing Machinery.10.1145/3581783.3613850 ↗
56. Segura-Bedmar, I., and Alonso-Bartolome, S. (2022). Multimodal fake news detection. Information, 13.10.3390/info13060284 ↗
57. Wang, Z., Shan, X., Zhang, X., and Yang, J. (2021). N24News: A new dataset for multimodal news classification. arXiv.
58. Clip-GCN: An adaptive detection model for multimodal emergent fake news domains10.1007/s40747-024-01413-3 ↗
59. MEFaND: A Multimodel Framework for Early Fake News Detection10.1109/TCSS.2024.3355300 ↗
60. Combating multimodal fake news on social media: Methods, datasets, and future perspective10.1007/s00530-022-00966-y ↗
61. A survey on deep multimodal learning for computer vision: Advances, trends, applications, and datasets10.1007/s00371-021-02166-7 ↗
62. Murayama, T. (2021). Dataset of fake news detection and fact verification: A survey. arXiv.
63. Fake news detection: A survey of evaluation datasets10.7717/peerj-cs.518 ↗
64. Khan, T., Rahman, M., Chatrath, V., Bamgbose, O., and Raza, S. (2023). FakeWatch ElectionShield: A Benchmarking Framework to Detect Fake News for Credible US Elections. arXiv.
65. Abdali, S. (2022). Multi-modal misinformation detection: Approaches, challenges and opportunities. arXiv.
66. Chen, Y., Li, D., Zhang, P., Sui, J., Lv, Q., Tun, L., and Shang, L. Cross-modal ambiguity learning for multimodal fake news detection. Proceedings of the ACM Web Conference 2022.10.1145/3485447.3511968 ↗
67. Advanced Machine Learning techniques for fake news (online disinformation) detection: A systematic mapping study10.1016/j.asoc.2020.107050 ↗
68. The spread of true and false news online10.1126/science.aap9559 ↗
69. Chen, Z., Hu, L., Li, W., Shao, Y., and Nie, L. (2023). Causal intervention and counterfactual reasoning for multi-modal fake news detection. Proceedings of the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers), Association for Computational Linguistics.10.18653/v1/2023.acl-long.37 ↗
70. Combating disinformation on social media: A computational perspective10.1016/j.tbench.2022.100035 ↗
71. Combating misinformation in the age of llms: Opportunities and challenges
72. Al-Onaizan, Y., Bansal, M., and Chen, Y.N. (2024). A Survey on Detection of LLMs-Generated Content. Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2024, Association for Computational Linguistics.
73. Kim, B., Xiong, A., Lee, D., and Han, K. (2021). A systematic review on fake news research through the lens of news creation and consumption: Research efforts, challenges, and future directions. PloS ONE, 16.10.1371/journal.pone.0260080 ↗
74. Nagy, K., and Kapusta, J. (2021). Improving fake news classification using dependency grammar. PloS ONE, 16.10.1371/journal.pone.0256940 ↗
75. Dzienisiewicz, D., Graliński, F., Jabłoński, P., Kubis, M., Skórzewski, P., and Wierzchoń, P. (2024). POLygraph: Polish Fake News Dataset. arXiv.10.18653/v1/2024.wassa-1.20 ↗
76. Huang, Y., and Sun, L. (2023). Harnessing the power of chatgpt in fake news: An in-depth exploration in generation, detection and explanation. arXiv.
77. Cui, L., and Lee, D. (2020). Coaid: COVID-19 healthcare misinformation dataset. arXiv.
78. Hanselowski, A., Stab, C., Schulz, C., Li, Z., and Gurevych, I. (2019). A richly annotated corpus for different tasks in automated fact-checking. arXiv.10.18653/v1/K19-1046 ↗
79. Text-mining-based fake news detection using ensemble methods10.1007/s11633-019-1216-5 ↗
80. Fake detect: A deep learning ensemble model for fake news detection10.1155/2021/5557784 ↗
81. Multiple features based approach for automatic fake news detection on social networks using deep learning10.1016/j.asoc.2020.106983 ↗
82. Deep learning for fake news detection: A comprehensive survey10.1016/j.aiopen.2022.09.001 ↗
83. Fake news detection based on news content and social contexts: A transformer-based approach10.1007/s41060-021-00302-z ↗
84. Raza, S. (2021). Automatic fake news detection in political platforms-a transformer-based approach. Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Challenges and Applications of Automated Extraction of Socio-Political Events from Text (CASE 2021), Association for Computational Linguistics.10.18653/v1/2021.case-1.10 ↗
85. Distinguishing between fake news and satire with transformers10.1016/j.eswa.2021.115824 ↗
86. A Comprehensive Analysis of Fake News Detection Models: A Systematic Literature Review and Current Challenges
87. Robust fake news detection over time and attack
88. Concept-drift detection index based on fuzzy formal concept analysis for fake news classifiers10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122640 ↗
89. Shushkevich, E., Alexandrov, M., and Cardiff, J. (2023). Improving Multiclass Classification of Fake News Using BERT-Based Models and ChatGPT-Augmented Data. Inventions, 8.10.3390/inventions8050112 ↗
90. Campos Zabala, F.J. (2023). Responsible AI Understanding the Ethical and Regulatory Implications of AI. Grow Your Business with AI: A First Principles Approach for Scaling Artificial Intelligence in the Enterprise, Apress.10.1007/978-1-4842-9669-1 ↗
91. Fake news as a critical incident in journalism
92. Truth is what happens to news: On journalism, fake news, and post-truth
93. Fake news is counterfeit news10.1080/0020174X.2019.1688179 ↗
94. Navigating the challenges of fake news and media trust: A bibliometric study10.1108/JICES-07-2024-0106 ↗
95. Yadav, D., and Salmani, S. (2019). Deepfake: A survey on facial forgery technique using generative adversarial network. 2019 International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Control Systems (ICCS), IEEE.10.1109/ICCS45141.2019.9065881 ↗
96. Goodfellow, I., Pouget-Abadie, J., Mirza, M., Xu, B., Warde-Farley, D., Ozair, S., Courville, A., and Bengio, Y. (2014). Generative adversarial nets. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 27 (NIPS 2014), Neural Information Processing Systems Foundation.
97. Antoniou, A., Storkey, A., and Edwards, H. (2017). Data augmentation generative adversarial networks. arXiv.
98. Frid-Adar, M., Klang, E., Amitai, M., Goldberger, J., and Greenspan, H. (2018). Synthetic data augmentation using GAN for improved liver lesion classification. 2018 IEEE 15th International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging (ISBI 2018), IEEE.10.1109/ISBI.2018.8363576 ↗
99. Mitigating bias in algorithmic systems—A fish-eye view
100. Xu, D., Yuan, S., Zhang, L., and Wu, X. (2018). Fairgan: Fairness-aware generative adversarial networks. 2018 IEEE International Conference on Big Data (Big Data), IEEE.10.1109/BigData.2018.8622525 ↗