journal article·2023-10-28Open access

Comparison of Key Nutrient Content of Commercial Puppy Foods with Canine Dietary Requirements

Weronika Jacuńska, Wioletta Biel, Robert Witkowicz, Dominika Maciejewska-Markiewicz, Ewa Piątkowska

Applied Sciences· Volume 13· Issue 21

Abstract

A balanced diet significantly impacts a dog’s development with regards to energy, growth, immunity, and overall health. Customizing a dog’s diet according to its age, size, and activity level is imperative for its welfare. Unbalanced diets can lead to nutritional deficiencies. This study assesses the key nutrient content of puppy diets that display information on EPA and DHA fatty acids. The diets fulfilled nutritional requirements for protein and fat according to the European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF) but varied in terms of levels of essential fatty acids. The nutrient levels in certain diets did not correspond to the label claims. None of the diets fulfilled the EPA and DHA claims, indicating an inconsistent ratio of n−6 to n−3. Additionally, trans fat such as C18:1 elaidic acid was present in all diets.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline

Research context

OpenAlex topics: Animal Nutrition and Physiology · Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors · Veterinary Medicine and Surgery

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

Affiliations

Department of Monogastric Animal Sciences, Division of Animal Nutrition and Food, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Klemensa Janickiego 29, 71–270 Szczecin, Poland

Department of Agroecology and Crop Production, Faculty of Agriculture and Economics, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Mickiewicza 21, 31–120 Krakow, Poland

Department of Human Nutrition and Metabolomics, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, 70-204 Szczecin, Poland

Department of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Food Technology, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Balicka 122, 30–149 Krakow, Poland

References (100+)

Show source-provided references
1. FEDIAF (2022). Annual Report, The European Pet Food Industry.
2. Educating dog owners: How owner—Dog interactions can benefit from addressing the human caregiving system and dog–directed parenting styles10.1163/1568539X-bja10066 ↗
3. European Commission (2009). Regulation (EC) No 767/2009 on the Placing on the Market and Use of Feed, Amending Regulation (EC) No 1831/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and Repealing Council Directive 79/373/EEC, Commission Directive 80/511/EEC, Council Directives 82/471/EEC, 83/228/EEC, 93/74/EEC, 93/113/EC, and 96/25/EC, and Commission Decision 2004/217/EC. Off. J. Eur. Union, L189, 1–52.
4. Evaluating pet foods: How confident are you when you recommend a commercial pet food?10.1053/j.tcam.2008.04.003 ↗
5. Andersen, V., Lelieveld, H., and Motarjemi, Y. (2023). Food Safety Management, Academic Press. [2nd ed.].
6. Statista (2023). Pet Food Report 2023, Statista—The Statistics Portal.
7. FEDIAF (2021). Nutritional Guidelines for Complete and Complementary Pet Food for Cats and Dogs, The European Pet Food Industry Federation.
8. Reduced incidence of vagally induced atrial fibrillation and expression levels of connexins by n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in dogs10.1016/j.jacc.2007.05.046 ↗
9. The validation & verification of an LC/MS method for the determination of total docosahexaenoic acid concentrations in canine blood serum10.1016/j.yrtph.2018.03.021 ↗
10. The oil–rich alga Schizochytrium sp. as a dietary source of docosahexaenoic acid improves shape discrimination learning associated with visual processing in a canine model of senescence10.1016/j.plefa.2017.01.011 ↗
11. The role of n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in brain: Modulation of rat brain gene expression by dietary n−3 fatty acids10.1073/pnas.042698699 ↗
12. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on synaptic plasticity, fatty acid profile and phosphoinositide 3–kinase signaling in rat hippocampus and differentiated PC12 cells10.1016/j.jnutbio.2008.12.015 ↗
13. High–fat diet transition reduces brain DHA levels associated with altered brain plasticity and behaviour10.1038/srep00431 ↗
14. Role of dietary fatty acids in dogs & cats
15. Fatty acid desaturation and chain elongation in eukaryotes10.1016/S0167-7306(08)60512-8 ↗
16. Essential fatty acid metabolism during early development10.1016/S1877-1823(09)70017-7 ↗
17. Effects of different omega–3 sources, fish oil, krill oil, and green–lipped mussel against cytokine–mediated canine cartilage degradation10.1007/s11626-016-0125-y ↗
18. A prospective, randomized, double blind, placebo–controlled evaluation of the effects of an n−3 essential fatty acids supplement (Agepi® ω3) on clinical signs, and fatty acid concentrations in the erythrocyte membrane, hair shafts and skin surface of dogs with poor quality coats10.1016/j.plefa.2020.102140 ↗
19. Pasławski, R., Kurosad, A., Ząbek, A., Pasławska, U., Noszczyk-Nowak, A., Michałek, M., and Młynarz, P. (2021). Effect of 6–month feeding with a diet enriched in EPA+ DHA from fish meat on the blood metabolomic profile of dogs with myxomatous mitral valve disease. Animals, 11.10.3390/ani11123360 ↗
20. A novel therapeutic diet can significantly reduce the medication score and pruritus of dogs with atopic dermatitis during a nine—Month controlled study10.1111/vde.13020 ↗
21. Fatty acid–related modulations of membrane fluidity in cells: Detection and implications10.1080/10715762.2016.1231403 ↗
22. Microalgae Schizochytrium sp. as a source of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): Effects on diet digestibility, oxidation and palatability and on immunity and inflammatory indices in dogs10.1111/asj.13294 ↗
23. Zhang, M., Sun, X., Cheng, J., and Guo, M. (2022). Analysis and comparison of nutrition profiles of canine milk with bovine and caprine milk. Foods, 11.10.3390/foods11030472 ↗
24. Comparison of the nutrient composition of commercial dog milk replacers with that of dog milk10.2460/javma.244.12.1413 ↗
25. Docosahexaenoic acid and neurologic development in animals10.2460/javma.228.5.700 ↗
26. Response of plasma fatty acid profiles to changes in dietary n−3 fatty acids and its correlation with erythrocyte fatty acid profiles in dogs10.1111/jpn.12023 ↗
27. A prospective, randomized, double blind, placebo–controlled evaluation of the effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on the clinical signs and erythrocyte membrane polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations in dogs with osteoarthritis10.1016/j.plefa.2016.03.015 ↗
28. Hall, J.A., Brockman, J.A., Davidson, S.J., MacLeay, J.M., and Jewell, D.E. (2017). Increased dietary long–chain polyunsaturated fatty acids alter serum fatty acid concentrations and lower risk of urine stone formation in cats. PLoS ONE, 12.10.1371/journal.pone.0187133 ↗
29. Polyunsaturated fatty acids influence inflammatory markers in a cellular model for canine osteoarthritis10.1111/jpn.12804 ↗
30. Orally administered DHA–enriched phospholipids and DHA–enriched triglyceride relieve oxidative stress, improve intestinal barrier, modulate inflammatory cytokine and gut microbiota, and meliorate inflammatory responses in the brain in dextran sodium sulfate induced colitis in mice10.1002/mnfr.202000986 ↗
31. de Viteri, S.M., Hernandez, M., Bilbao-Malavé, V., Fernandez-Robredo, P., González-Zamora, J., Garcia-Garcia, L., Ispizua, N., Recalde, S., and Garcia-Layana, A. (2020). A higher proportion of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) when combined with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in omega–3 dietary supplements provides higher antioxidant effects in human retinal cells. Antioxidants, 9.10.3390/antiox9090828 ↗
32. The effects of EPA and DHA enriched fish oil on nutritional and immunological markers of treatment natïve breast cancer patients: A randomized double–blind controlled trial
33. Efficacy of a therapeutic diet on dogs with signs of cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS): A prospective double blinded placebo controlled clinical study10.3389/fnut.2018.00127 ↗
34. Dahms, I., Bailey-Hall, E., Sylvester, E., Parenteau, A., Yu, S., Karagiannis, A., Roos, F., and Wilson, J. (2019). Safety of a novel feed ingredient, Algal Oil containing EPA and DHA, in a gestation–lactation–growth feeding study in Beagle dogs. PLoS ONE, 14.10.1371/journal.pone.0217794 ↗
35. Pedrinelli, V., Lima, D.M., Duarte, C.N., Teixeira, F.A., Porsani, M., Zarif, C., Amaral, A.R., Vendramini, T.H.A., Kogika, M.M., and Brunetto, M.A. (2020). Nutritional and laboratory parameters affect the survival of dogs with chronic kidney disease. PLoS ONE, 15.10.1371/journal.pone.0234712 ↗
36. The effect of supplementation of microalgae Schizochytrium sp. as a source of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on dogs with naturally occurring gingivitis10.5380/avs.v25i1.62680 ↗
37. VanderSluis, L., Mazurak, V.C., Damaraju, S., and Field, C.J. (2017). Determination of the relative efficacy of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid for anti–cancer effects in human breast cancer models. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.10.3390/ijms18122607 ↗
38. Differential effects of EPA and DHA on DSS–Induced colitis in mice and possible mechanisms involved10.1039/D0FO02308F ↗
39. Castilla-Madrigal, R., Gil-Iturbe, E., de Calle, M.L., Moreno-Aliaga, M.J., and Lostao, M.P. (2020). DHA and its derived lipid mediators MaR1, RvD1, and RvD2 block TNF–α inhibition of intestinal sugar and glutamine uptake in Caco–2 cells. J. Nutr. Biochem., 76.10.1016/j.jnutbio.2019.108264 ↗
40. Omega–3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cancer: Lessons learned from clinical trials10.1007/s10555-015-9572-2 ↗
41. Facilitative and functional fats in diets of cats and dogs10.2460/javma.229.5.680 ↗
42. Therapeutic effect of EPA/DHA supplementation in neoplastic and non–neoplastic companion animal diseases: A systematic review10.21873/invivo.12394 ↗
43. Effect of fish oil, arginine, and doxorubicin chemotherapy on remission and survival time for dogs with lymphoma: A double–blind, randomized placebo–controlled study10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(20000415)88:8<1916::AID-CNCR22>3.0.CO;2-F ↗
44. Docosahexaenoic acid: A natural powerful adjuvant that improves efficacy for anticancer treatment with no adverse effects10.1002/biof.181 ↗
45. DHA regulates angiogenesis and improves the efficiency of CDDP for the treatment of lung carcinoma10.1016/j.mvr.2013.02.006 ↗
46. Dietary fatty acids affect semen quality: A review10.1111/andr.12024 ↗
47. Effect of daily food supplementation with essential fatty acids on canine semen quality10.1111/j.1439-0531.2009.01438.x ↗
48. Effect of long–term fish oil supplementation on semen quality and serum testosterone concentrations in male dogs
49. Role of omega–3 fatty acids in canine health: A review10.20546/ijcmas.2020.903.259 ↗
50. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), a fundamental fatty acid for the brain: New dietary sources10.1016/j.plefa.2017.08.001 ↗
51. Differential effect of arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on age–related decreases in hippocampal neurogenesis10.1016/j.neures.2014.08.002 ↗
52. Farooqui, A.A. (2011). Lipid Mediators and Their Metabolism in the Brain, Springer. [1st ed.].10.1007/978-1-4419-9940-5 ↗
53. Morelli, G., Stefanutti, D., and Ricci, R. (2021). A survey among dog and cat owners on pet food storage and preservation in the households. Animals, 11.10.3390/ani11020273 ↗
54. Comparison of the guaranteed analysis with the measured nutrient composition of commercial pet foods10.2460/javma.234.3.347 ↗
55. The nutritive value of selected commercial dry dog foods10.15414/afz.2016.19.01.25-28 ↗
56. Effects of milling sorghum into fractions on yield, nutrient composition, and their performance in extrusion of dog food10.1016/j.jcs.2018.05.013 ↗
57. Meineri, G., Peiretti, P.G., Tassone, S., Candellone, A., Longato, E., Russo, N., Pattono, D., and Prola, L. (2019). Nutritional value of extruded dog food with mechanically separated chicken meat or meat by–products. Biology.10.20944/preprints201901.0189.v1 ↗
58. Nutritional evaluation of commercial dry dog foods available on the Czech market10.1111/jpn.13573 ↗
59. Kazimierska, K., Biel, W., and Witkowicz, R. (2020). Mineral composition of cereal and cereal–free dry dog foods versus nutritional guidelines. Molecules, 25.10.3390/molecules25215173 ↗
60. Elemental composition in commercial dry extruded and moist canned dog foods10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2022.115287 ↗
61. Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) (2005). Official Methods of Analysis, AOAC International. [18th ed.].
62. Van Alfen, N.K. (2014). Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems, Academic Press.
63. NRC (2006). Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats.
64. Saini, R.K., Prasad, P., Shang, X., and Keum, Y.S. (2021). Advances in lipid extraction methods—A review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.10.3390/ijms222413643 ↗
65. Lipoxins, RevD1 and 9, 13 HODE as the most important derivatives after an early incident of ischemic stroke10.1038/s41598-020-69831-0 ↗
66. FEDIAF (2019). Code of Good Labelling Practice for Pet Food, The European Pet Food Industry Federation.
67. A profile similarity coefficient invariant over variable reflection10.1037/h0026865 ↗
68. Thiamine deficiency in dogs and cats10.2460/javma.243.5.649 ↗
69. An antioxidant dietary supplement improves brain–derived neurotrophic factor levels in serum of aged dogs: Preliminary results10.1155/2015/412501 ↗
70. Mineral analysis of complete dog and cat foods in the UK and compliance with European guidelines10.1038/s41598-017-17159-7 ↗
71. Diet–associated dilated cardiomyopathy in dogs: What do we know?10.2460/javma.253.11.1390 ↗
72. Risk assessment of 22 chemical elements in dry and canned pet foods10.1007/s00003-018-1178-5 ↗
73. Insights into commercial pet foods10.1016/j.cvsm.2021.01.013 ↗
74. Effects of dietary protein on whole–body protein turnover and endocrine function in young–adult and aging dogs10.2527/2001.79123128x ↗
75. Pet food safety: Dietary protein10.1053/j.tcam.2008.04.009 ↗
76. Evaluation of calcium, phosphorus, and selected trace mineral status in commercially available dry foods formulated for dogs10.2460/javma.243.5.658 ↗
77. Evaluation of the nutrients supplied by veterinary diets commercialized in Brazil for obese dogs undergoing a weight loss program10.1111/jpn.13689 ↗
78. Mineral and heavy metal content in dry dog foods with different main animal components10.1038/s41598-023-33224-w ↗
79. Musculoskeletal development of the puppy
80. Mineral composition of dry dog foods: Impact on nutrition and potential toxicity10.1021/acs.jafc.8b02552 ↗
81. Mycotoxins in commercial dry pet food in China10.1080/19393210.2018.1475425 ↗
82. Evaluation of nutritional value and microbiological safety in commercial dog food10.1007/s11259-021-09791-6 ↗
83. Geicu, O.I., Bilteanu, L., Stanca, L., Ionescu Petcu, A., Iordache, F., Pisoschi, A.M., and Serban, A.I. (2022). Composition–based risk estimation of mycotoxins in dry dog foods. Foods, 12.10.3390/foods12010110 ↗
84. Evaluation of storage mite contamination of commercial dry dog food10.1111/j.1365-3164.2008.00676.x ↗
85. Witaszak, N., Stępień, Ł., Bocianowski, J., and Waśkiewicz, A. (2019). Fusarium species and mycotoxins contaminating veterinary diets for dogs and cats. Microorganisms, 7.10.3390/microorganisms7010026 ↗
86. Study of the chemical and nutritional characteristics of commercial dog foods used as elimination diet for the diagnosis of canine food allergy10.4081/ijas.2009.s2.328 ↗
87. Effects of natural antioxidants on the stability of omega–3 fatty acids in dog food10.2478/jvetres-2018-0014 ↗
88. A study into the fatty acid content of selected veterinary diets, supplements and fish oil capsules in Australia10.1111/vde.12950 ↗
89. Effect of age, breed and dietary omega–6 (n−6): Omega–3 (n−3) fatty acid ratio on immune function, eicosanoid production, and lipid peroxidation in young and aged dogs10.1016/S0165-2427(99)00052-5 ↗
90. Effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids on isolated canine peripheral blood mononuclear cells and cytokine expression (IL–4, IFN–γ, TGF–β) in healthy and atopic dogs10.1111/j.1365-3164.2009.00860.x ↗
91. Dodd, S.A.S., Shoveller, A.K., Fascetti, A.J., Yu, Z.Z., Ma, D.W.L., and Verbrugghe, A. (2021). A comparison of key essential nutrients in commercial plant–based pet foods sold in Canada to American and European canine and feline dietary recommendations. Animals, 11.10.3390/ani11082348 ↗
92. Variation in fat content and fatty–acid composition of the Baltic herring Clupea harengus membras10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02696.x ↗
93. Nutritional and lipid profiles in marine fish species from Brazil10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.03.055 ↗
94. Proximate and fatty acid composition of 13 important freshwater fish species in central Europe10.1007/s10499-018-0243-5 ↗
95. Identification and quantification of lipids in wild and farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), and salmon feed by GC–MS10.1002/fsn3.2911 ↗
96. Postprandial incorporation of EPA and DHA from transgenic Camelina sativa oil into blood lipids is equivalent to that from fish oil in healthy humans10.1017/S0007114519000825 ↗
97. Oil from transgenic Camelina sativa as a source of EPA and DHA in feed for European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.)10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735759 ↗
98. Genetically modified plants are an alternative to oily fish for providing n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the human diet: A summary of the findings of a Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council funded project10.1111/nbu.12478 ↗
99. Ghidoli, M., Ponzoni, E., Araniti, F., Miglio, D., and Pilu, R. (2023). Genetic improvement of Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz: Opportunities and challenges. Plants, 12.10.3390/plants12030570 ↗
100. Microalgae as source of functional ingredients in new–generation foods: Challenges, technological effects, biological activity, and regulatory issues10.1080/10408398.2021.1879729 ↗