Green Enzymatic Recovery of Functional Bioactive Compounds from Unsold Vegetables: Storability and Potential Health Benefits
Source abstract
Abstract
Carotenoids and betalains are food-derived bioactive compounds well-known for their countless healthy properties, especially as antioxidants, anti-inflammatory and immune system regulators. We have achieved a concise literature review on the main topics related to fruits and vegetables that contain such bioactive compounds, their localization in the plant cells, enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE) from vegetable sources (agricultural/food waste and unsold fruits and vegetables) and methods to improve pigment stability. The growing demand for more sustainable, efficient, and energy-saving techniques has driven the design of EAE protocols, such as a green route for the recovery of more stable natural pigments avoiding the use of organic solvents. This review discusses for the first time the application of commercial multi-enzymatic preparations by comparing it with the use of a tailored enzymatic mix, specifically formulated on the basis of the polysaccharide composition of vegetable source, for enhancing pigment recovery yield and stability. In order to move the economy in the direction of a circular economy model, the valorization of fruit and vegetable waste as a source of high added-value compounds, such as natural colorants, is a key issue. Therefore, the unsold vegetables may find a different use, where the donation to a food bank or charity organization may not be a viable path.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Botanical Research and Applications
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Department of Agriculture and Forest Sciences (DAFNE), Tuscia University, Via S. Camillo de Lellis Snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Riesenegger, L., and Hübner, A. (2022). Reducing food waste at retail stores—An explorative study. Sustainability, 14.10.3390/su14052494 ↗
2. The value of food waste: An exploratory study on retailing10.1016/j.jretconser.2016.01.004 ↗
3. Klingler, R., Hübner, A., and Kempcke, T. (2016). End-to-End Supply Chain Management in Grocery Retailing, European Retail Institute.
4. González-Torre, P.L., and Coque, J. (2016). From food waste to donations: The case of marketplaces in Northern Spain. Sustainability, 8.10.3390/su8060575 ↗
5. Piirsalu, E., Moora, H., Väli, K., Värnik, R., Aro, K., and Lillemets, J. (2022). The Generation of Food Waste and Food Loss in the Estonian Food Supply Chain, Stockholm Environment Institute.10.51414/sei2022.018 ↗
6. Leveraging livestock to promote a circular food system10.15302/J-FASE-2020370 ↗
7. Tedesco, D.E.A., Scarioni, S., Tava, A., Panseri, S., and Zuorro, A. (2021). Fruit and Vegetable Wholesale Market Waste: Safety and Nutritional Characterisation for Their Potential Re-Use in Livestock Nutrition. Sustainability, 13.10.3390/su13169478 ↗
8. Farmer behavior and perception regarding food waste and unsold food10.1108/BFJ-12-2017-0727 ↗
9. Katsarova, I. (2017). Resource Efficiency: Reducing Food Waste, Improving Food Safety, European Parliamentary Research Service.
10. Hussain, S., Jõudu, I., and Bhat, R. (2020). Dietary fiber from underutilized plant resources—A positive approach for valorization of fruit and vegetable wastes. Sustainability, 12.10.3390/su12135401 ↗
11. Recovery of wasted fruit and vegetables for improving sustainable diets10.1016/j.tifs.2019.11.010 ↗
12. Natural colorants from vegetable food waste: Recovery, regulatory aspects, and stability—A review10.1111/1541-4337.12951 ↗
13. Antioxidant enrichment and antimicrobial protection of fresh-cut fruits using their own byproducts: Looking for integral exploitation
14. Valorization of fruits and vegetable wastes and by-products to produce natural pigments10.1080/07388551.2021.1873240 ↗
15. (2022, November 18). Biolie. Available online: https://www.biolie.fr/.
16. Nanoencapsulation by electrospinning to improve stability and water solubility of carotenoids extracted from tomato peels10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.06.017 ↗
17. Trombino, S., Cassano, R., Procopio, D., Di Gioia, M.L., and Barone, E. (2021). Valorization of tomato waste as a source of carotenoids. Molecules, 26.10.3390/molecules26165062 ↗
18. Carotenoids extraction strategies and potential applications for valorization of under-utilized waste biomass10.1016/j.fbio.2022.101812 ↗
19. Comparative assessment on the extraction of carotenoids from microalgal sources: Astaxanthin from H. pluvialis and β-carotene from D. salina10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.10.066 ↗
20. Valorization of fruit and vegetables agro-wastes for the sustainable production of carotenoid-based colorants with enhanced bioavailability10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110924 ↗
21. Direito, R., Rocha, J., Sepodes, B., and Eduardo-Figueira, M. (2021). From Diospyros kaki L. (Persimmon) phytochemical profile and health impact to new product perspectives and waste valorization. Nutrients, 13.10.3390/nu13093283 ↗
22. Anaya-Esparza, L.M., Mora, Z.V.D.L., Vázquez-Paulino, O., Ascencio, F., and Villarruel-López, A. (2021). Bell peppers (Capsicum annum L.) losses and wastes: Source for food and pharmaceutical applications. Molecules, 26.10.3390/molecules26175341 ↗
23. Araújo-Rodrigues, H., Santos, D., Campos, D.A., Ratinho, M.M., Rodrigues, I.E., and Pintado, M. (2021). Development of frozen pulps and powders from carrot and tomato by-products: Impact of processing and storage time on bioactive and biological properties. Horticulturae, 7.10.3390/horticulturae7070185 ↗
24. Natural bioactive compounds in carrot waste for food applications and health benefits10.1016/B978-0-12-819483-6.00009-6 ↗
25. A water extraction process for lycopene from tomato waste using a pressurized method: An application of a numerical simulation10.1007/s00217-019-03300-5 ↗
26. De Andrade Lima, M., Kestekoglou, I., Charalampopoulos, D., and Chatzifragkou, A. (2019). Supercritical fluid extraction of carotenoids from vegetable waste matrices. Molecules, 24.10.3390/molecules24030466 ↗
27. Effect of fresh–cut apples fortification with lycopene microspheres, revalorized from tomato by-products, during shelf life10.1016/j.postharvbio.2019.05.026 ↗
28. Green ultrasound-assisted extraction of carotenoids from pomegranate wastes using vegetable oils10.1016/j.ultsonch.2016.07.022 ↗
29. Supercritical CO2 extraction and antioxidant activity of lycopene and β-carotene-enriched oleoresin from tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum L.) peels by-product of a Tunisian industry10.1016/j.fbp.2017.02.002 ↗
30. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of β-carotene and α-tocopherol from pumpkin: A Box–Behnken design for extraction variables10.1039/C6AY02862D ↗
31. Tomato and tomato byproducts. Human health benefits of lycopene and its application to meat products: A review10.1080/10408398.2011.623799 ↗
32. Charactrization of carotenoids (lyco-red) extracted from tomato peels and its uses as natural colorants and antioxidants of ice cream10.1016/j.aoas.2014.06.008 ↗
33. Lycopene induces cell growth inhibition by altering mevalonate pathway and Ras signaling in cancer cell lines10.1093/carcin/bgq157 ↗
34. Betalains and their applications in food: The current state of processing, stability and future opportunities in the industry10.1016/j.fochms.2022.100089 ↗
35. Zin, M.M., Anucha, C.B., and Bánvölgyi, S. (2020). Recovery of phytochemicals via electromagnetic irradiation (microwave-assisted-extraction): Betalain and phenolic compounds in perspective. Foods, 9.10.3390/foods9070918 ↗
36. Castro-Enríquez, D.D., Montaño-Leyva, B., Del Toro-Sánchez, C.L., Juárez-Onofre, J.E., Carvajal-Millán, E., López-Ahumada, G.A., and Rodríguez-Félix, F. (2020). Effect of ultrafiltration of Pitaya extract (Stenocereus thurberi) on Its phytochemical content, antioxidant capacity, and UPLC-DAD-MS profile. Molecules, 25.10.3390/molecules25020281 ↗
37. Red beetroot betalains: Perspectives on extraction, processing, and potential health benefits10.1021/acs.jafc.0c04241 ↗
38. The comparison of betalain composition and chosen biological activities for differently pigmented prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) and beetroot (Beta vulgaris) varieties10.1080/09637486.2018.1529148 ↗
39. Nutraceutical potential and antioxidant benefits of red pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus) extracts10.1016/j.jff.2011.09.003 ↗
40. “La Vie en Rose”: Biosynthesis, sources, and applications of betalain pigments10.1016/j.molp.2017.10.008 ↗
41. Impact of conventional and non-conventional processing on prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) and their derived products: From preservation of beverages to valorization of by-products10.1016/j.tifs.2017.07.012 ↗
42. Health-promoting bioactivities of betalains from red dragon fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus (Weber) Britton and Rose) peels as affected by carbohydrate encapsulation10.1002/jsfa.7681 ↗
43. Biological activities of plant pigments betalains10.1080/10408398.2012.740103 ↗
44. In vivo and in vitro antioxidant effects of beetroot pomace extracts10.1016/j.jff.2013.10.003 ↗
45. Future Market Insights (2022). Betanin Food Color Market. Market Insights on Betanin Food Color Covering Sales Outlook, Demand Forecast & Up-to-Date Key Trends. Betanin Food Color Market by Nature, Product Source, Application, Form & Region-Forecast 2022–2032, Future Market Insights.
46. Chromoplasts--the last stages in plastid development
47. Characterization of phenolics, betacyanins and antioxidant activities of the seed, leaf, sprout, flower and stalk extracts of three Amaranthus species10.1016/j.jfca.2014.09.003 ↗
48. Determination of lycopene and β-carotene content in tomato fruits and related products: Comparison of FT-Raman, ATR-IR, and NIR spectroscopy10.1021/ac061220j ↗
49. Nondestructive evaluation of internal maturity of tomatoes using spatially offset Raman spectroscopy10.1016/j.postharvbio.2012.04.008 ↗
50. Effect of drying and co-matrix addition on the yield and quality of supercritical CO2 extracted pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duch.) oil10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.10.051 ↗
51. Varietal differences in the bioaccessibility of β-carotene from mango (Mangifera indica) and papaya (Carica papaya) fruits10.1021/jf0712604 ↗
52. Carotenoid content of 50 watermelon cultivars10.1021/jf052066p ↗
53. Effects of various traditional processing methods on the all-trans-β-carotene content of orange-fleshed sweet potato10.1016/j.jfca.2007.09.006 ↗
54. Analytical characterization of beetroot vacuole membrane10.1083/jcb.87.1.72 ↗
55. Functional properties of anthocyanins and betalains in plants, food, and in human nutrition10.1016/j.tifs.2003.07.004 ↗
56. Influence of conventional and ultrasonic-assisted extraction on phenolic contents, betacyanin contents, and antioxidant capacity of red dragon fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus)10.1155/2014/964731 ↗
57. Extraction of red pitaya (Stenocereus stellatus) bioactive compounds applying microwave, ultrasound and enzymatic pretreatments
58. Valorization of agricultural lignocellulosic plant byproducts through enzymatic and enzyme-assisted extraction of high-value-added compounds: A Review10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c02087 ↗
59. Enzyme assisted extraction of biomolecules as an approach to novel extraction technology: A review10.1016/j.foodres.2018.03.006 ↗
60. Chemat, F., and Vian, M.A. (2014). Alternative Solvents for Natural Products Extraction, Springer.10.1007/978-3-662-43628-8 ↗
61. Enzyme-assisted extraction of lycopene from tomato processing waste10.1016/j.enzmictec.2011.04.020 ↗
62. Enzyme-assisted extraction of bioactives from plants10.1016/j.tibtech.2011.06.014 ↗
63. Enzyme-assisted extraction of carotenoids from Bulgarian tomato peels10.1556/066.2017.46.1.11 ↗
64. Environmentally friendly lycopene purification from tomato peel waste: Enzymatic assisted aqueous extraction10.1021/jf3027815 ↗
65. Optimization of enzyme assisted extraction of lycopene from industrial tomato waste10.1016/j.seppur.2019.03.006 ↗
66. Mild enzymatic method for the extraction of lycopene from tomato paste10.2478/V10133-010-0028-0 ↗
67. Tailored and synergistic enzyme-assisted extraction of carotenoid-containing chromoplasts from tomatoes10.1016/j.fbp.2020.01.014 ↗
68. Reusable nanobiocatalysts for the efficient extraction of pigments from orange peel10.1007/s13197-016-2272-2 ↗
69. Enzyme-assisted extraction of carotenoid-rich extract from red capsicum (Capsicum annuum)10.1007/s40003-015-0201-7 ↗
70. Enzyme-aided extraction of carotenoids from pumpkin tissues10.1080/00194506.2015.1046697 ↗
71. Improving the extraction efficiency and stability of β-carotene from carrot by enzyme-assisted green nanoemulsification10.1016/j.ifset.2021.102836 ↗
72. Lombardelli, C., Benucci, I., Mazzocchi, C., and Esti, M. (2021). A novel process for the recovery of betalains from unsold red beets by low-temperature enzyme-assisted extraction. Foods, 10.10.3390/foods10020236 ↗
73. Application of an ultrasound-assisted extraction method to recover betalains and polyphenols from red beetroot waste10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c01203 ↗
74. Betalain extraction from Hylocereus polyrhizus for natural food coloring purposes
75. Natural food pigments and colorants10.1016/j.cofs.2015.08.004 ↗
76. Microencapsulation of carotenoid-rich materials: A review10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110571 ↗
77. Novel food colorants from tomatoes: Stability of carotenoid-containing chromoplasts under different storage conditions10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110725 ↗
78. Betalains: Properties, sources, applications, and stability—A review10.1111/j.1365-2621.2007.01668.x ↗
79. Micó-Vicent, B., Perales Romero, E., Jordán-Núñez, J., and Viqueira, V. (2021). Halloysite and Laponite Hybrid Pigments Synthesis with Copper Chlorophyll. Appl. Sci., 11.10.3390/app11125568 ↗
80. Betalain stability and degradation—Structural and chromatic aspects10.1111/j.1750-3841.2006.00022.x ↗
81. Structural and chromatic stability of purple pitaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus [Weber] Britton & Rose) betacyanins as affected by the juice matrix and selected additives10.1016/j.foodres.2006.01.004 ↗
82. Stabilization of betalains by encapsulation—A review10.1007/s13197-019-04120-x ↗
83. Betalain extracts from beetroot as food colorants: Effect of temperature and UV-light on storability10.1007/s11130-021-00915-6 ↗
84. Effect of different antioxidants on lycopene degradation in oil-in-water emulsions10.1002/ejlt.201000524 ↗
85. Haas, K., Robben, P., Kiesslich, A., Volkert, M., and Jaeger, H. (2019). Stabilization of crystalline carotenoids in carrot concentrate powders: Effects of drying technology, carrier Material, and antioxidants. Foods, 8.10.3390/foods8080285 ↗
86. Stabilization of all-trans-lycopene from tomato by encapsulation using cyclodextrins10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.04.060 ↗
87. Inclusion complexes of yellow bell pepper pigments with β-cyclodextrin: Preparation, characterisation and application as food natural colorant10.1002/jsfa.8760 ↗
88. Durante, M., Milano, F., Caroli, M.D., Giotta, L., Piro, G., Mita, G., Frigione, M., and Lenucci, M.S. (2020). Tomato oil encapsulation by α-, β-, and γ-Cyclodextrins: A comparative study on the formation of supramolecular structures, antioxidant activity, and carotenoid stability. Foods, 9.10.3390/foods9111553 ↗
89. Microencapsulation of lutein by spray-drying: Characterization and stability analyses to promote its use as a functional ingredient10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.02.059 ↗
90. Curi-Borda, C.K., Linares-Pastén, J.A., Tat, T., Tarqui-Dueñas, R., Chino-Flores, N., Alvarado, J.A., and Bergenstahl, B. (2019). Multilayer bixin microcapsules: The impact of native carbohydrates on the microencapsulation efficiency and dispersion stability. Foods, 8.10.3390/foods8030108 ↗
91. TPP-chitosomes as potential encapsulation system to protect carotenoid-rich extract obtained from carrot by-product: A comparison with liposomes and chitosomes10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.133857 ↗
92. Nanoencapsulation of Red Bell Pepper Carotenoids: Comparison of Encapsulating Agents in an Emulsion Based System10.3390/colorants1020009 ↗
93. Afonso, B.S., Azevedo, A.G., Gonçalves, C., Amado, I.R., Ferreira, E.C., Pastrana, L.M., and Cerqueira, M.A. (2020). Bio-based nanoparticles as a carrier of β-carotene: Production, characterisation and in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. Molecules, 25.10.3390/molecules25194497 ↗
94. Repeated regeneration of degraded red beet juice pigments in the presence of antioxidants10.1111/j.1365-2621.1998.tb15678.x ↗
95. Effects of different encapsulation agents and drying process on stability of betalains extract10.1007/s13197-012-0728-6 ↗
96. Saffron and beetroot extracts encapsulated in maltodextrin, gum Arabic, modified starch and chitosan: Incorporation in a chewing gum system10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.03.049 ↗
97. Encapsulation and pigmenting potential of betalains of pitaya (Stenocereus pruinosus) fruit10.1007/s13197-018-3161-7 ↗
98. Effect of pH on the stability of red beet extract (Beta vulgaris L.) microcapsules produced by spray drying or freeze drying10.1590/1678-457x.34316 ↗
99. García-Segovia, P., Igual, M., and Martínez-Monzó, J. (2021). Beetroot microencapsulation with pea protein using spray drying: Physicochemical, structural and functional properties. Appl. Sci., 11.10.3390/app11146658 ↗
100. Evaluating the effect of additives on stability of betacyanin pigments from Basella rubra in a model beverage system during storage10.1007/s13197-020-04635-8 ↗