An Insight into the Chemistry of Cement—A Review
Source abstract
Abstract
Even if cement is a well-consolidated material, the chemistry of cement (and the chemistry inside cement) remains very complex and still non-obvious. What is sure is that the hydration mechanism plays a pivotal role in the development of cements with specific final chemical compositions, mechanical properties, and porosities. This document provides a survey of the chemistry behind such inorganic material. The text has been organized into five parts describing: (i) the manufacture process of Portland cement, (ii) the chemical composition and hydration reactions involving a Portland cement, (iii) the mechanisms of setting, (iv) the classification of the different types of porosities available in a cement, with particular attention given to the role of water in driving the formation of pores, and (v) the recent findings on the use of recycled waste materials in cementitious matrices, with a particular focus on the sustainable development of cementitious formulations. From this study, the influence of water on the main relevant chemical transformations occurring in cement clearly emerged, with the formation of specific intermediates/products that might affect the final chemical composition of cements. Within the text, a clear distinction between setting and hardening has been provided. The physical/structural role of water in influencing the porosities in cements has been analyzed, making a correlation between types of bound water and porosities. Lastly, some considerations on the recent trends in the sustainable reuse of waste materials to form “green” cementitious composites has been discussed and future considerations proposed.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Concrete and Cement Materials Research · Innovative concrete reinforcement materials · Recycled Aggregate Concrete Performance
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, C.so Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
Department of Materials Science, University of Milano-Bicocca, INSTM, Via R. Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Hewlett, P.C. (1998). 6-Hydration, Setting and Hardening of Portland Cement. Lea’s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, Butterworth-Heinemann. [4th ed.].
2. Wang, Q. (2022). Chapter 5-Cementing Additives. Fluid Chemistry, Drilling and Completion, Gulf Professional Publishing.
3. Research Review of Cement Clinker Chemistry10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.05.018 ↗
4. Proposing a Three-Phase Model for Predicting the Mechanical Properties of Mortar and Concrete10.1016/j.mtcomm.2021.102858 ↗
5. Cement and Concrete as an Engineering Material: An Historic Appraisal and Case Study Analysis10.1016/j.engfailanal.2014.02.004 ↗
6. Immobilization of Cu (Ⅱ), Ni (Ⅱ) and Zn (Ⅱ) in Silica Fume Blended Portland Cement: Role of Silica Fume10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127772 ↗
7. Performance and Mechanisms of Stimulated Self-Healing in Cement-Based Composites Exposed to Saline Environments10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2022.104470 ↗
8. Synthesis and Integration of Cement-Based Capsules Modified with Sodium Silicate for Developing Self-Healing Cements10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125803 ↗
9. Development of Cement-Based Strain Sensor for Health Monitoring of Ultra High Strength Concrete10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.105 ↗
10. Cassese, P., Rainieri, C., and Occhiuzzi, A. (2021). Applications of Cement-Based Smart Composites to Civil Structural Health Monitoring: A Review. Appl. Sci., 11.10.3390/app11188530 ↗
11. Oxidation of Carbon Nanotubes for Improving the Mechanical and Electrical Properties of Oil-Well Cement-Based Composites10.1021/acsanm.2c00706 ↗
12. Effects of Inorganic Surface Treatment on Water Permeability of Cement-Based Materials10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.01.002 ↗
13. Cementitious Composite Materials for Thermal Energy Storage Applications: A Preliminary Characterization and Theoretical Analysis10.1038/s41598-020-69502-0 ↗
14. Improving Rubber Concrete Strength and Toughness by Plasma-induced End-of-life Tire Rubber Surface Modification10.1002/ppap.202100081 ↗
15. Properties and Utilizations of Waste Tire Rubber in Concrete: A Review10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.108 ↗
16. Lavagna, L., Nisticò, R., Sarasso, M., and Pavese, M. (2020). An Analytical Mini-Review on the Compression Strength of Rubberized Concrete as a Function of the Amount of Recycled Tires Crumb Rubber. Materials, 13.10.3390/ma13051234 ↗
17. A Comprehensive Review on the Mechanical Properties of Waste Tire Rubber Concrete10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117651 ↗
18. Utilization of Bio-Waste Eggshell Powder as a Potential Filler Material for Cement: Analyses of Zeta Potential, Hydration and Sustainability10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.126220 ↗
19. Chitosan and Its Char as Fillers in Cement-Base Composites: A Case Study10.1016/j.bsecv.2019.10.002 ↗
20. Mechanical Properties of Mortar Containing Recycled Acanthocardia Tuberculata Seashells as Aggregate Partial Replacement10.1016/j.bsecv.2020.03.011 ↗
21. (2022, December 12). Cement|OEC. Available online: https://oec.world/en/profile/hs/cement.
22. Hydration of Blended Cement with High-Volume Slag and Nano-Silica10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105657 ↗
23. Alkali -Silica Reaction and Its Dynamic Relationship with Cement Pore Solution in Highly Reactive Systems10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129702 ↗
24. Hydration Mechanism and Phase Assemblage of Blended Cement with Iron-Rich Sewage Sludge Ash10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105579 ↗
25. Effect of Pozzolanic Reaction of Zeolite on Its Internal Curing Performance in Cement-Based Materials10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105503 ↗
26. Comparison on Early Hydration of Portland Cement and Sulphoaluminate Cement in the Presence of Nano Ettringite10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129516 ↗
27. Effect of Electrical Field on the Stability of Hydration Products of Cement Paste in Different Liquid Media10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129489 ↗
28. Hydration Mechanism and Thermodynamic Simulation of Ecological Ternary Cements Containing Phosphogypsum10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.104621 ↗
29. Molecular Dynamics Simulation of C-S-H Corrosion in Chloride Environment10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.104568 ↗
30. A Potential C-S-H Nucleation Mechanism: Atomistic Simulations of the Portlandite to C-S-H Transformation10.1016/j.cemconres.2022.106965 ↗
31. Synergistic Effect of Hydration and Carbonation of Ladle Furnace Aslag on Cementitious Substances10.1038/s41598-022-18215-7 ↗
32. Hydration and Mixture Design of Calcined Clay Blended Cements: Review by the RILEM TC 282-CCL10.1617/s11527-022-02060-1 ↗
33. Effect of Fineness of Cement on Drying Shrinkage10.1016/j.cemconres.2022.106961 ↗
34. Mechanical Properties and Hydration Mechanism of High-Volume Ultra-Fine Iron Ore Tailings Cementitious Materials10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129100 ↗
35. Influences of Leaching on the Composition, Structure and Morphology of Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C–S–H) with Different Ca/Si Ratios10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105017 ↗
36. Investigation of Sodium Alginate as a Candidate Retarder of Magnesium Phosphate Cement: Hydration Properties and Its Retarding Mechanism10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.07.038 ↗
37. Pre-Curing Time Effect on Reactive Powder Concrete Impact Resistance10.1063/5.0104255 ↗
38. Li, B., Tang, Z., Huo, B., Liu, Z., Cheng, Y., Ding, B., and Zhang, P. (2022). The Early Age Hydration Products and Mechanical Properties of Cement Paste Containing GBFS under Steam Curing Condition. Buildings, 12.10.3390/buildings12101746 ↗
39. Hydration Kinetics of Sulfoaluminate Cement with Different Water/Cement Ratios as Grouting Material Used for Coal Mines10.1680/jmacr.21.00129 ↗
40. The Effects of Nano-Silica on Early-Age Hydration Reactions of Nano Portland Cement10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2022.104698 ↗
41. Effects of Limestone Powder on the Early Hydration of Tricalcium Aluminate10.1007/s10973-022-11287-7 ↗
42. Achternbosch, M., Bräutigam, K.R., Hartlieb, N., Kupsch, C., Richers, U., Stemmermann, P., and Gleis, M. (2003). Heavy Metals in Cement and Concrete Resulting from the Co-Incineration of Wastes in Cement Kilns with Regard to the Legitimacy of Waste Utilisation, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe GmbH.
43. Waste Materials Co-Processing in Cement Industry: Ecological Efficiency of Waste Reuse10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.015 ↗
44. Characterization of Limestone as Raw Material to Hydrated Lime10.1051/e3sconf/20183402042 ↗
45. 15-Coal Utilisation in the Cement and Concrete Industries
46. Lea, F.M., and Mason, T.O. (2019). Cement-Extraction and Processing, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
47. Whittaker, M., Dubina, E., Plank, J., and Black, L. (2010, January 13–15). The Effects of Prehydration on Cement Performance. Proceedings of the 30th Cement and Concrete Science Conference, Birmingham, UK.
48. Nisticò, R. (2022). A Comprehensive Study on the Applications of Clays into Advanced Technologies, with a Particular Attention on Biomedicine and Environmental Remediation. Inorganics, 10.10.3390/inorganics10030040 ↗
49. The Importance of Surfaces and Interfaces in Clays for Water Remediation Processes10.1088/2051-672X/aaed09 ↗
50. Studies of the Physical Properties of Hardened Portland Cement Paste
51. Factors Affecting Early-Age Hydration of Ordinary Portland Cement Studied by NMR: Fineness, Water-to-Cement Ratio and Curing Temperature10.1007/s00723-007-0019-y ↗
52. Soler, J.M. (2007). Thermodynamic Description of the Solubility of C-S-H Gels in Hydrated Portland Cement Literature Review, Posiva Oy. Available online: http://www.posiva.fi/publications/WR2007-88web.pdf.
53. Hydration, Mechanical Property and C-S-H Structure of Early-Strength Low-Heat Cement-Based Materials10.1016/j.matlet.2018.01.077 ↗
54. Hydration of Tricalcium Silicate
55. Multiscale Understanding of Tricalcium Silicate Hydration Reactions10.1038/s41598-018-26943-y ↗
56. Kinetic Mechanisms and Activation Energies for Hydration of Standard and Highly Reactive Forms of β-Dicalcium Silicate (C2S)10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.06.001 ↗
57. Stable Conversion of Metastable Hydrates in Calcium Aluminate Cement by Early Carbonation Curing10.1016/j.jcou.2017.07.002 ↗
58. Lea, F.M., Hewlett, P.C., and Liška, M. (2019). Lea’s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, Butterworth-Heinemann. [5th ed.].10.1016/B978-0-08-100773-0.00014-9 ↗
59. Delayed Ettringite Formation10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00466-5 ↗
60. Aïtcin, P.-C., and Flatt, R.J. (2016). 8-Mechanisms of Cement Hydration. Science and Technology of Concrete Admixtures, Woodhead Publishing.10.1016/B978-0-08-100693-1.00002-3 ↗
61. ESEM Evidence for Through-Solution Transport during Brownmillerite Hydration10.1023/B:JMSC.0000044904.51813.74 ↗
62. Evolution of Iron Speciation during Hydration of C4AF10.1016/j.wasman.2006.01.021 ↗
63. Flick, E.W. (1989). Handbook of Adhesive Raw Materials, William Andrew.
64. Ion-Specific Effects Influencing the Dissolution of Tricalcium Silicate10.1016/j.cemconres.2014.02.006 ↗
65. Nucleation and Growth Models for Hydration of Cement10.1016/j.cemconres.2012.03.019 ↗
66. Advances in Understanding Hydration of Portland Cement10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.05.025 ↗
67. The Hydration of Portland Cement10.1098/rspa.1978.0050 ↗
68. Pre-Induction and Induction Hydration of Tricalcium Silicate: An Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy Study10.1007/BF00353014 ↗
69. Calcium and Silicon Concentrations in Solution during the Early Hydration of Portland Cement and Tricalcium Silicate10.1016/0008-8846(81)90026-0 ↗
70. The Mechanism of the Formation and Transformation of Ettringite10.1007/BF02840908 ↗
71. Hydration Characteristics of β-C2S in the Presence of Some Accelerators10.1016/0008-8846(96)00103-2 ↗
72. An Experimental Argument for the Existence of a Protective Membrane Surrounding Portland Cement during the Induction Period10.1016/0008-8846(79)90048-6 ↗
73. Influence and Mechanism Research of Hydration Heat Inhibitor on Low-Heat Portland Cement10.3389/fmats.2021.697380 ↗
74. Ouzia, A.R.C.W.C. (2019). Modeling the Kinetics of the Main Peak and Later Age of Alite Hydration, EPFL.
75. Advances in Dissolution Understanding and Their Implications for Cement Hydration10.21809/rilemtechlett.2017.47 ↗
76. Model for Two Types of Calcium Silicate Hydrate in the Microstructure of Portland Cement Pastes10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00257-X ↗
77. Investigation of C3S Hydration by Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope10.1111/jmi.12247 ↗
78. Chemical Shrinkage of High-Strength/High-Performance Cementitious Materials
79. The Effect of Magnesium and Zinc Ions on the Hydration Kinetics of C3S10.1111/jace.13156 ↗
80. Barnes, P., and Bensted, J. (2002). Structure and Performance of Cements, CRC Press.10.1201/9781482295016 ↗
81. Advances in Understanding Ye’elimite-Rich Cements10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.105778 ↗
82. C01 Committee (2006). Test Methods for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle, ASTM International.
83. Yuan, Q., Liu, Z., Zheng, K., and Ma, C. (2021). Chapter 2-Inorganic Cementing Materials. Civil Engineering Materials, Elsevier.10.1016/B978-0-12-822865-4.00002-7 ↗
84. Taylor, H.F.W. (1997). 4 Properties of Portland Clinker and Cement. Cement Chemistry, Thomas Telford Publishing.10.1680/cc.25929.0004 ↗
85. Hydration, Shrinkage, Pore Structure and Fractal Dimension of Silica Fume Modified Low Heat Portland Cement-Based Materials10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121952 ↗
86. Mindess, S. (2019). 8-The Composition and Design of High-Strength Concrete and Ultrahigh-Strength Concrete. Developments in the Formulation and Reinforcement of Concrete, Woodhead Publishing. [2nd ed.].
87. Elucidating the Effect of Water-To-Cement Ratio on the Hydration Mechanisms of Cement10.1021/acsomega.8b00097 ↗
88. Study of the Impact of Bentonite on the Physico-Mechanical and Flow Properties of Cement Grout10.1080/23311916.2018.1446252 ↗
89. Impact of Water-Soluble Cellulose Ethers on Polymer-Modified Mortars10.1007/s10853-013-7732-8 ↗
90. New Insights into How MgCl2 Deteriorates Portland Cement Concrete10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.03.026 ↗
91. A Diagnosis of Construction and Demolition Waste Generation and Recovery Practice in the European Union10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118400 ↗
92. Construction and Demolition Waste as a Raw Material for Wood Polymer Composites—Assessment of Environmental Impacts10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.03.348 ↗
93. Economic Analysis of Conventional versus Selective Demolition—A Case Study10.1016/j.resconrec.2010.11.003 ↗
94. Life Cycle Assessment of Non-Hazardous Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW) Management in Lombardy Region (Italy)10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.287 ↗
95. Recycling of Construction and Demolition Waste for Producing New Construction Material (Brazil Case-Study)10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.07.044 ↗
96. Use of Recycled Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW) Aggregates: A Sustainable Alternative for the Pavement Construction Industry10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.088 ↗
97. Pacheco-Torgal, F., Tam, V.W.Y., Labrincha, J.A., Ding, Y., and de Brito, J. (2013). 9-Preparation of Concrete Aggregates from Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW). Handbook of Recycled Concrete and Demolition Waste, Woodhead Publishing.10.1533/9780857096906 ↗
98. Environmental and Economic Impact Assessment of Construction and Demolition Waste Disposal Using System Dynamics10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.10.015 ↗
99. Construction and Demolition Waste Best Management Practice in Europe10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.04.016 ↗
100. Rendering Mortars with Incorporation of Very Fine Aggregates from Construction and Demolition Waste10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.116844 ↗