Electricity Generation in LCA of Electric Vehicles: A Review
Source abstract
Abstract
Life Cycle assessments (LCAs) on electric mobility are providing a plethora of diverging results. 44 articles, published from 2008 to 2018 have been investigated in this review, in order to find the extent and the reason behind this deviation. The first hurdle can be found in the goal definition, followed by the modelling choice, as both are generally incomplete and inconsistent. These gaps influence the choices made in the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) stage, particularly in regards to the selection of the electricity mix. A statistical regression is made with results available in the literature. It emerges that, despite the wide-ranging scopes and the numerous variables present in the assessments, the electricity mix’s carbon intensity can explain 70% of the variability of the results. This encourages a shared framework to drive practitioners in the execution of the assessment and policy makers in the interpretation of the results.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Advanced Battery Technologies Research · Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure · Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technologies
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Mat4En2—Materials for Energy and Environment, Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Ingegneria Chimica “Giulio Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
MOBI—Mobility, Logistics and Automotive Technology Research Centre, Department of Electric Engineering and Energy Technology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
Flanders Make, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Environmental impacts of hybrid and electric vehicles-a review10.1007/s11367-012-0440-9 ↗
2. Environmental impacts of hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and battery electric vehicles—What can we learn from life cycle assessment?10.1007/s11367-014-0788-0 ↗
3. Spatial and temporal heterogeneity of marginal emissions: Implications for electric cars and other electricity-shifting policies10.1016/j.jebo.2014.03.010 ↗
4. Well-To-Wheels Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles10.4271/2009-01-1309 ↗
5. Life-cycle analysis of production and recycling of lithium ion batteries10.3141/2252-08 ↗
6. Contribution of Li-Ion Batteries to the Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles10.1021/es903729a ↗
7. Life cycle environmental assessment of lithium-ion and nickel metal hydride batteries for plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles10.1021/es103607c ↗
8. Comparative Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Conventional and Electric Vehicles10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00532.x ↗
9. A comparative LCA of an electric vehicle and an internal combustion engine vehicle using the appropriate power mix: The Italian case study10.1007/s11367-015-0903-x ↗
10. Parametric modeling approach for economic and environmental life cycle assessment of medium-duty truck electrification10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.139 ↗
11. Electric vehicle cost, emissions, and water footprint in the United States: Development of a regional optimization model10.1016/j.energy.2015.05.152 ↗
12. A novel approach for global environmental performance evaluation of electric batteries for hybrid vehicles10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.04.035 ↗
13. Life-cycle assessment of greenhouse gas and air emissions of electric vehicles: A comparison between China and the U.S10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.02.073 ↗
14. Comparison between hydrogen and electric vehicles by life cycle assessment: A case study in Tuscany, Italy10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.03.021 ↗
15. Giordano, A., Fischbeck, P., and Matthews, H.S. (2017). Environmental and economic comparison of diesel and battery electric delivery vans to inform city logistics fleet replacement strategies. Transp. Res. Part D.10.1016/j.trd.2017.10.003 ↗
16. Electric car life cycle assessment based on real-world mileage and the electric conversion scenario10.1007/s11367-015-0934-3 ↗
17. Electric cars: Technical characteristics and environmental impacts10.1186/2190-4715-24-14 ↗
18. Comparative environmental assessment of conventional, electric, hybrid, and fuel cell powertrains based on LCA10.1007/s11367-017-1294-y ↗
19. European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability (2010). ILCD Handbook-General Guide for Life Cycle Assessment-Detailed Guidance, Publications Office of the European Union.
20. Environmental Impacts of Future Urban Deployment of Electric Vehicles: Assessment Framework and Case Study of Copenhagen for 2016–203010.1021/acs.est.7b01780 ↗
21. Dynamic fleet-based life-cycle greenhouse gas assessment of the introduction of electric vehicles in the Portuguese light-duty fleet10.1007/s11367-015-0921-8 ↗
22. From Cradle to Junkyard: Assessing the Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Benefits of Electric Vehicles10.1016/j.retrec.2015.10.007 ↗
23. The environmental performance of current and future passenger vehicles: Life cycle assessment based on a novel scenario analysis framework10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.019 ↗
24. Cost of ad-hoc nuclear policy uncertainties in the evolution of the Swiss electricity system10.1016/j.enpol.2012.07.035 ↗
25. The effect of charging time on the comparative environmental performance of different vehicle types10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.07.040 ↗
26. Impact of the electricity mix and use profile in the life-cycle assessment of electric vehicles10.1016/j.rser.2013.03.063 ↗
27. Freire, F., and Marques, P. (2012, January 16–18). Electric vehicles in Portugal: An integrated energy, greenhouse gas and cost life-cycle analysis. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technology (ISSST), Boston, MA, USA.10.1109/ISSST.2012.6227988 ↗
28. Garcia, R., and Freire, F. (2016). Marginal Life-Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Electricity Generation in Portugal and Implications for Electric Vehicles. Resources, 5.10.3390/resources5040041 ↗
29. Lanati, F., Benini, M., and Gelmini, A. (2011, January 24–28). Impact of the penetration of electric vehicles on the Italian power system: A 2030 scenario. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting, Detroit, MI, USA.10.1109/PES.2011.6039145 ↗
30. Nitsch, J., Pregger, T., Naegler, T., Heide, D., Luca de Tena, D., Trieb, F., Scholz, Y., Nienhaus, K., Gerhardt, N., and Sterner, M. (2018, August 14). Langfristszenarien und Strategien für den Ausbau der erneuerbaren Energien in Deutschland bei Berücksichtigung der Entwicklung in Europa und global. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259895385.
31. Life cycle analysis of energy supply infrastructure for conventional and electric vehicles10.1016/j.enpol.2011.11.015 ↗
32. A new comparison between the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of battery electric vehicles and internal combustion vehicles10.1016/j.enpol.2012.01.034 ↗
33. Determining marginal electricity for near-term plug-in and fuel cell vehicle demands in California: Impacts on vehicle greenhouse gas emissions10.1016/j.jpowsour.2009.10.024 ↗
34. Marshall, B.M., Kelly, J.C., Lee, T., Keoleian, G.A., and Filipi, Z. (2013). Environmental assessment of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles using naturalistic drive cycles and vehicle travel patterns: A Michigan case study. Energy Policy, 358–370.10.1016/j.enpol.2013.03.037 ↗
35. Stochastic comparative assessment of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions from conventional and electric vehicles10.1007/s11367-015-0866-y ↗
36. Messagie, M., Coosemans, T., and Van Mierlo, J. (2015, January 3–6). The influence of electricity allocation rules in environmental assessments of electric vehicles. Proceedings of the 28th International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition, Goyang, Korea.
37. Conventional, hybrid, plug-in hybrid or electric vehicles? State-based comparative carbon and energy footprint analysis in the United States10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.04.001 ↗
38. Potential Impacts of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles on Regional Power Generation10.1016/j.tej.2009.10.011 ↗
39. Environmental and Energy Implications of Plug-In Hybrid-Electric Vehicles10.1021/es062314d ↗
40. Comparative environmental assessment of alternative fueled vehicles using a life cycle assessment10.1016/j.trpro.2017.05.244 ↗
41. A Range-Based Vehicle Life Cycle Assessment Incorporating Variability in the Environmental Assessment of Different Vehicle Technologies and Fuels10.3390/en7031467 ↗
42. Consequential life cycle air emissions externalities for plug-in electric vehicles in the PJM interconnection10.1088/1748-9326/11/2/024009 ↗
43. Effect of regional grid mix, driving patterns and climate on the comparative carbon footprint of gasoline and plug-in electric vehicles in the United States10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/044007 ↗
44. Marginal Emissions Factors for the U.S. Electricity System10.1021/es300145v ↗
45. Life cycle assessment of future electric and hybrid vehicles: A cradle-to-grave systems engineering approach10.1016/j.cherd.2016.07.003 ↗
46. Regional Variability and Uncertainty of Electric Vehicle Life Cycle CO2 Emissions across the United States10.1021/acs.est.5b00815 ↗
47. US marginal electricity grid mixes and EV greenhouse gas emissions10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.09.146 ↗
48. Effect of demand response on the marginal electricity used by plug-in electric vehicles
49. Energy use, cost and CO2 emissions of electric cars10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.09.119 ↗
50. Impact of international climate policies on CO2 capture and storage deployment10.1016/j.enpol.2011.01.036 ↗
51. A sustainability assessment of electric vehicles as a personal mobility system10.1016/j.enconman.2012.02.023 ↗
52. Well-to-wheel analysis of greenhouse gas emissions for electric vehicles based on electricity generation mix: A global perspective10.1016/j.trd.2017.01.005 ↗
53. Life cycle assessment of environmental and economic impacts of advanced vehicles10.3390/en5030605 ↗
54. Effects of battery chemistry and performance on the life cycle greenhouse gas intensity of electric mobility10.1016/j.trd.2016.05.009 ↗
55. Life cycle assessment of lithium sulfur battery for electric vehicles10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.01.036 ↗
56. Life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles—Critical issues10.1016/j.jclepro.2010.06.004 ↗
57. Key issues of lithium-ion batteries—From resource depletion to environmental performance indicators10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.021 ↗
58. Environmental performance of advanced hybrid energy storage systems for electric vehicle applications10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.07.012 ↗
59. Development of an electricity system model allowing dynamic and marginal approaches in LCA—tested in the French context of space heating in buildings10.1007/s11367-016-1229-z ↗
60. Consequential cradle-to-gate carbon footprint of water treatment chemicals using simple and complex marginal technologies for electricity supply10.1007/s11367-014-0799-x ↗
61. Using Nested Average Electricity Allocation Protocols to Characterize Electrical Grids in Life Cycle Assessment10.1111/jiec.12268 ↗
62. The international workshop on electricity data for life cycle inventories10.1016/j.jclepro.2002.03.001 ↗
63. Consequential life cycle assessment: A review10.1007/s11367-011-0275-9 ↗
64. (2018, February 06). Why and When?. Available online: www.consequential-lca.org.
65. Positive and negative feedback in consequential life-cycle assessment10.1016/j.jclepro.2006.03.005 ↗
66. Hernandez, M., Messagie, M., De Gennaro, M., and Van Mierlo, J. (2016). Resource depletion in an electric vehicle powertrain using different LCA impact methods. Resour. Conserv. Recycl.10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.11.005 ↗
67. Geopolitical-related supply risk assessment as a complement to environmental impact assessment: The case of electric vehicles10.1007/s11367-015-0917-4 ↗
68. LCA and decision making: When and how to use consequential LCA; 62nd LCA Forum, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich, 9 September 201610.1007/s11367-016-1248-9 ↗
69. Exploring the suitability of electric vehicles in the United States10.1016/j.energy.2017.01.035 ↗
70. McCarthy, R.W. (2007, January 2–5). Impacts of electric-drive vehicles on California’s energy system. Proceedings of the 23rd International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exposition 2007—Sustainability: The Future of Transportation, EVS 2007, Anaheim, CA, USA.
71. Attributional or consequential Life Cycle Assessment: A matter of social responsibility10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.340 ↗
72. Ministry of Climate and Energy (2018, August 14). Energy Strategy 2050—from Coal, Oil and Gas to Green Energy, Available online: http://www.danishwaterforum.dk/activities/Climate%20change/Dansk_Energistrategi_2050_febr.2011.pdf.
73. International Energy Agency (2011). Energy Policies of IEA countries—Denmark 2011 Review, IEA Publications.
74. Lights and shadows in consequential LCA10.1007/s11367-012-0423-x ↗
75. System boundaries and input data in consequential life cycle inventory analysis10.1007/BF02994190 ↗
76. (2018, January 30). Example. Marginal Electricity in Denmark. Available online: www.consequential-lca.org.
77. (2018, January 30). Further Theory on the Special Case of Electricity—Forecasting and Time Horizon. Available online: www.consequential-lca.org.
78. The complexity and challenges of determining GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions from grid electricity consumption and conservation in LCA (life cycle assessment)—A methodological review10.1016/j.energy.2011.10.028 ↗
79. Weidema, B.P., Ekvall, T., and Heijungs, R. (2018, August 14). Guidelines for application of deepened and broadened LCA. Technical report for CALCAS Project. Available online: https://lca-net.com/publications/show/guidelines-applications-deepened-broadened-lca/.
80. Energy system analysis of marginal electricity supply in consequential LCA10.1007/s11367-010-0164-7 ↗
81. Schmidt, J.H., Thrane, M., Merciai, S., and Dalgaard, R. (2018, August 14). Inventory of Country Specific Electricity in LCA-Consequential and Attributional Scenarios. Methodology Report v2. Available online: https://lca-net.com/publications/show/inventory-country-specific-electricity-lca-consequential-attributional-scenarios-methodology-report-v2/.
82. Weidema, B.P. (2018, August 14). Market Information in Life Cycle Assessment. Available online: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.197.5739&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
83. Uncertainties related to the identification of the marginal energy technology in consequential life cycle assessments10.1016/j.jclepro.2009.04.009 ↗
84. A framework for allocating greenhouse gas emissions from electricity generation to plug-in electric vehicle charging10.1016/j.enpol.2013.05.013 ↗
85. Comparative Assessment of Models and Methods to Calculate Grid Electricity Emissions10.1021/acs.est.5b05216 ↗
86. Using Attributional Life Cycle Assessment to Estimate Climate-Change Mitigation Benefits Misleads Policy Makers10.1111/jiec.12074 ↗
87. Time and scale in Life Cycle Assessment: The case of fuel choice in the transport sector10.1504/IJAP.2008.019689 ↗
88. Environmental Effects of Interstate Power Trading on Electricity Consumption Mixes10.1021/es0506859 ↗
89. Itten, R., Frischknecht, R., and Stucki, M. (2014). Life Cycle Inventories of Electricity Mixes and Grid, Treeze Ltd.
90. (2018, March 01). Climate Change Knowledge Portal. Available online: http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/index.cfm?page=country_historical_climate&ThisCCode=PRT.
91. (2018, March 21). GaBi Databases. Available online: http://www.gabi-software.com/italy/databases/gabi-databases/.
92. (2018, August 14). Argonne National Laboratory Greet 2016 Manual, Available online: https://greet.es.anl.gov/publication-greet-manual.
93. Life cycle energy and greenhouse gas emissions of nuclear energy: A review10.1016/j.enconman.2008.01.033 ↗
94. Valuing the greenhouse gas emissions from nuclear power: A critical survey10.1016/j.enpol.2008.04.017 ↗
95. Emissions from Photovoltaic Life Cycles10.1021/es071763q ↗
96. Dynamic life cycle assessment (LCA) of renewable energy technologies10.1016/j.renene.2005.03.002 ↗
97. U.S. Energy Information Administration (2013). Annual Energy Outlook 2013—With Projections to 2040.
98. IEA (2014). Energy Policies of IEA Countries: European Union 2014 Review, IEA Publications.
99. (2018, February 16). NEEDS. Available online: http://www.needs-project.org/needswebdb/search.php.
100. Life cycle assessment of electric mobility: Answers and challenges—Zurich, April 6, 201110.1007/s11367-011-0306-6 ↗