Artificial trachea design, construction, and application: Materials, cells, and growth factors

Tracheal stenosis has been a challenging issue for medical practitioners; however, tissue engineering technology has promoted the development of tissue-engineered trachea (TET) for tracheal replacement therapy. Seed cells, scaffold materials, and bioactive factors are required to construct a TET. The optimal combination of these components is necessary to construct TETs with good mechanical strength, histocompatibility, and functionalization that promote tracheal transplantation and reconstruction of airway function. This review critically evaluates the advancements in tracheal tissue engineering concerning the progression and practical utilization of biomaterials in TET construction. First, we outline the history of tracheal tissue engineering development. Second, we comprehensively review the materials used to prepare TETs, focusing on newly emerging biomaterials. Finally, we present our views on the applications of novel materials and prospective avenues for further investigation in tracheal tissue engineering. This review promotes the inter-disciplinary exchange of ideas across clinical medicine, tissue engineering technology, and biomaterials.