Review of gold nanoparticles: synthesis, properties and applications
Source abstract
Abstract
Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) exhibit exceptional physicochemical properties, notably localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), enabling diverse applications in biomedicine, molecular imaging (CT/PAI/MRI), photothermal therapy (PTT), and targeted drug delivery. This review systematically examines synthesis strategies, emphasizing pulsed laser ablation in liquid (PLAL) as a surfactant-free, eco-friendly “top-down” method producing pristine 5–50 nm AuNPs via plasma plume confinement and cavitation-induced nucleation. Complementary “bottom-up” green biosynthesis leverages plant/fruit extracts (polyphenols/flavonoids), microorganisms, and fungi (nitrate reductase) to yield biofunctionalized AuNPs (10–80 nm) with inherent stability for theranostics. Comparative analyses highlight PLAL’s superiority in purity/yield compared to chemical methods, while biological methods excel in scalability and multifunctionality. Shape-dependent plasmonic heating: nanorods achieve ΔT = 45–55 °C vs. spheres (25 °C), underpinning PTT efficacy. The review elucidates targeting strategies (passive EPR vs. active ligand-receptor), hybrid imaging, and challenges, including EPR heterogeneity, synthesis reproducibility, and clinical translation. Future directions prioritize fs-PLAL optimization, biohybrid architectures, and multimodal AuNP platforms for precision oncology. Graphical abstract
Source: openalex_inverted_index · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Laser-Ablation Synthesis of Nanoparticles · Gold and Silver Nanoparticles Synthesis and Applications · Pickering emulsions and particle stabilization
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
References (100+)
Show source-provided references
1. Tiwari G, Tiwari R, Sriwastawa B, Bhati L, Pandey S, Pandey P, et al. Drug delivery systems: an updated review. Int J Pharm Investig. 2012;2:2.10.4103/2230-973X.96920 ↗
2. Homayun B, Lin X, Choi H-J. Challenges and recent progress in oral drug delivery systems for biopharmaceuticals. Pharmaceutics. 2019;11:129.10.3390/pharmaceutics11030129 ↗
3. Rathi R, Sanshita; Kumar A, Vishvakarma V, Huanbutta K, Singh I, Sangnim T. Advancements in Rectal Drug Delivery Systems: Clinical Trials, and Patents Perspective. Volume 14. Pharmaceutics; 2022. p. 2210.10.3390/pharmaceutics14102210 ↗
4. Manchanda S, Das N, Chandra A, Bandyopadhyay S, Chaurasia S. Fabrication of advanced parenteral drug-delivery systems. Drug Delivery Systems. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier; 2020. pp. 47–84.10.1016/B978-0-12-814487-9.00002-8 ↗
5. Abhang P, Momin M, Inamdar M, Kar S. Transmucosal drug delivery—An overview. Drug Deliv Lett. 2014;4:26–37.10.2174/22103031113039990011 ↗
6. Tangri P, Khurana S. Approaches to pulmonary drug delivery systems. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2011;2:1616.
7. Alkilani AZ, McCrudden MTC, Donnelly RF. Transdermal drug delivery: innovative pharmaceutical developments based on disruption of the barrier properties of the stratum corneum. Pharmaceutics. 2015;7:438–70.10.3390/pharmaceutics7040438 ↗
8. Alhalafi AM. Applications of polymers in intraocular drug delivery systems. Oman J Ophthalmol. 2017;10:3.10.4103/0974-620X.200692 ↗
9. Harish V, Tewari D, Gaur M, Yadav AB, Swaroop S, Bechelany M, et al. Review on nanoparticles and nanostructured materials: bioimaging, biosensing, drug delivery, tissue engineering, antimicrobial, and agro-food applications. Nanomaterials Basel. 2021;12(3):457. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12030457.10.3390/nano12030457 ↗
10. Khan I, Saeed K, Khan I. Nanoparticles: properties, applications and toxicities. Arab J Chem. 2019;12(7):908–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2017.05.011.10.1016/j.arabjc.2017.05.011 ↗
11. Lai H, Liu S, Yan J, Xing F, Xiao P. Facile fabrication of biobased hydrogel from natural resources: L-cysteine, itaconic anhydride, and chitosan. ACS Sustain Chem Eng. 2020;8:4941–7.10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c00774 ↗
12. Dheyab MA, Khaniabadi PM, Aziz AA, Jameel MS, Mehrdel B, Oglat AA, et al. Focused role of nanoparticles against COVID-19: diagnosis and treatment. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2021;34:102287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2021.102287.10.1016/j.pdpdt.2021.102287 ↗
13. Vinodh D, Kota SR, Meikandan M et al. Optimization of mechanical, tribological, and machining properties of TiO₂-reinforced AA6013 composites. J Aust Ceram Soc 2026;62:839–853. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41779-025-01286-w10.1007/s41779-025-01286-w ↗
14. Dheyab MA, Aziz AA, Jameel MS, Khaniabadi PM. Recent advances in synthesis, medical applications and challenges for gold-coated iron oxide: Comprehensive study. Nanomaterials. 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11082147.10.3390/nano11082147 ↗
15. Mahan MM, Doiron AL. Gold nanoparticles as X-Ray, CT, and multimodal imaging contrast agents: Formulation, targeting, and methodology. J Nanomater. 2017;1:5837276. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5837276.10.1155/2018/5837276 ↗
16. Mieszawska AJ, Mulder MWJ, Fayad ZA, Cormode DP. Multifunctional gold nanoparticles for diagnosis and therapy of disease. Mol Pharm. 2013;10(3):831. https://doi.org/10.1021/mp3005885.10.1021/mp3005885 ↗
17. Bouché M, Hsu JC, Dong YC, Kim J, Taing K, Cormode DP. Recent advances in molecular imaging with gold nanoparticles. Bioconjug Chem. 2019;31(2):303. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.9b00669.10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.9b00669 ↗
18. Chen Y, Xi J, Du Le VN, Ramella-Roman J, Li X. Gold nanocages with a long surface plasmon resonance peak wavelength as contrast agents for optical coherence tomography imaging at 1060 nm. Nanomaterials Basel. 2025;15(10):755. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15100755.10.3390/nano15100755 ↗
19. Si P, Razmi N, Nur O, Solanki S, Pandey CM, Gupta RK, et al. Gold nanomaterials for optical biosensing and bioimaging. Nanoscale Adv. 2021;3(10):2679. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0na00961j.10.1039/d0na00961j ↗
20. Hang Y, Wang A, Wu N. Plasmonic silver and gold nanoparticles: Shape- and structure-modulated plasmonic functionality for point-of-caring sensing, bio-imaging and medical therapy. Chem Soc Rev. 2024;53(6):2932. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3cs00793f.10.1039/d3cs00793f ↗
21. Kumar R, Soni S. Concentration-dependent photothermal conversion efficiency of gold nanoparticles under near-infrared laser and broadband irradiation. Beilstein J Nanotechnol. 2023;14:205. https://doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.14.20.10.3762/bjnano.14.20 ↗
22. Vikas, Kumar R, Soni S. Quantitative study of concentration-dependent optical characteristics of nanoparticle-embedded tumor. Appl Nanosci. 2021;11(10):2589–97.10.1007/s13204-021-02089-8 ↗
23. Alrahili M, Peroor R, Savchuk V, McNear K, Pinchuk A. Morphology dependence in photothermal heating of gold nanomaterials with near-infrared laser. J Phys Chem C. 2020;124(8):4755–63.10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b11821 ↗
24. Liu Y-C, Chang Y-H, Lin Y-H, Liou C-C, Kuo T-R. High-performance sample substrate of gold nanoparticle multilayers for surface-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry. Nanomaterials Basel. 2019;9(8):1078. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano9081078.10.3390/nano9081078 ↗
25. Huang X, El-Sayed MA. Gold nanoparticles: Optical properties and implementations in cancer diagnosis and photothermal therapy. J Adv Res. 2009;1(1):13–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2010.02.002.10.1016/j.jare.2010.02.002 ↗
26. Hijaze E, Katrivas L, Reveguk Z, Richter S, Kotlyar AB. DNA–gold nanoparticle dumbbells: synthesis and nanoscale characterization. Nanomaterials. 2025;15(20):1583. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15201583.10.3390/nano15201583 ↗
27. Tang P, Jiang X, Wang Y, Chen H, Zhang YS, Gao P, et al. Plasmonic nanoprobe of (gold triangular nanoprism core)/(polyaniline shell) for real-time three-dimensional pH imaging of anterior chamber. Anal Chem. 2017;89(18):9758–66. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.7b01623.10.1021/acs.analchem.7b01623 ↗
28. Bai L, Jiang F, Wang R, et al. Ultrathin gold nanowires to enhance radiation therapy. J Nanobiotechnol. 2020;18:131. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-020-00678-3.10.1186/s12951-020-00678-3 ↗
29. Sagandykova G, Pryshchepa O, Rafińska K, Mametov R, Madajski P, Pomastowski P. LDI-MS performance of gold nanostars as an inorganic matrix for low molecular weight analytes. Int J Mass Spectrom. 2022;478:116872. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijms.2022.116872.10.1016/j.ijms.2022.116872 ↗
30. Zhang W, Wang F, Wang Y, Wang J, Yu Y, Guo S, Chen R, Zhou D. pH and near-infrared light dual-stimuli responsive drug delivery using DNA-conjugated gold nanorods for effective treatment of multidrug resistant cancer cells. J Control Release. 2016;232:9–19.10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.04.001 ↗
31. Huang X, Peng X, Wang Y, Wang Y, Shin DM, El-Sayed MA, Nie S. A Reexamination of Active and Passive Tumor Targeting by Using Rod-Shaped Gold Nanocrystals and Covalently Conjugated Peptide Ligands. ACS Nano. 2010;4(10):5887. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn102055s.10.1021/nn102055s ↗
32. Attia MF, Anton N, Wallyn J, Omran Z, Vandamme TF. An overview of active and passive targeting strategies to improve the nanocarriers efficiency to tumour sites. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2019;71(8):1185–98. https://doi.org/10.1111/jphp.13098.10.1111/jphp.13098 ↗
33. Goddard ZR, Marín MJ, Russell DA, Searcey M. Active targeting of gold nanoparticles as cancer therapeutics. Chem Soc Rev. 2020;49:8774–89. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0CS01121E.10.1039/D0CS01121E ↗
34. Clemons TD, Singh R, Sorolla A, Chaudhari N, Hubbard A, Swaminatha Iyer K. Distinction between active and passive targeting of nanoparticles dictate their overall therapeutic efficacy. Langmuir. 2018;34(50):15343–9. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b02946.10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b02946 ↗
35. Obalola AA, Abrahamse H, Dhilip Kumar SS. Recent advances in gold nanoparticle-based targeted photodynamic and photothermal cancer therapy. Nanoscale Adv. 2025;7(23):7440. https://doi.org/10.1039/d5na00767d.10.1039/d5na00767d ↗
36. Bucharskaya A, Maslyakova G, Terentyuk G, Yakunin A, Avetisyan Y, Bibikova O, et al. Towards effective photothermal/photodynamic treatment using plasmonic gold nanoparticles. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;17(8):1295. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17081295.10.3390/ijms17081295 ↗
37. Broadbent M, Chadwick SJ, Brust M, Volk M. Gold nanoparticles for photothermal and photodynamic therapy. ACS Omega. 2024;9(44):44846–59. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.4c08797.10.1021/acsomega.4c08797 ↗
38. Mahan MM, Doiron AL. Gold nanoparticles as X-Ray, CT, and multimodal imaging contrast agents: Formulation, targeting, and methodology. J Nanomater. 2017;1:5837276. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5837276.10.1155/2018/5837276 ↗
39. Bouché M, Hsu JC, Dong YC, Kim J, Taing K, Cormode DP. Recent advances in molecular imaging with gold nanoparticles. Bioconjug Chem. 2019;31(2):303. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.9b00669.10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.9b00669 ↗
40. Sau TK, Murphy CJ. Room temperature, high-yield synthesis of multiple shapes of gold nanoparticles in aqueous solution. J Am Chem Soc. 2004;126(28):8648–9.10.1021/ja047846d ↗
41. Khan MAR, Al Mamun MS, Habib MA, Islam AN, Mahiuddin M, Karim KMR, et al. A review on gold nanoparticles: biological synthesis, characterizations, and analytical applications. Results Chem. 2021;4:100478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rechem.2022.100478.10.1016/j.rechem.2022.100478 ↗
42. Velmurugan G, Chohan JS, Babu K et al. Next-Gen Hybrid Nanocomposites: Exploring the Mechanical, Moisture Diffusion, and Acoustic Excellence of Basalt/Hibiscus Cannabinus/Graphene Composites. Mech Compos Mater 2026;62:128–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11029-026-10352-810.1007/s11029-026-10352-8 ↗
43. Zhao P, Li N, Astruc D. State of the art in gold nanoparticle synthesis. Coord Chem Rev. 2013;257(3–4):638–65.10.1016/j.ccr.2012.09.002 ↗
44. Salloum S, Rüther J, Celika Z, Janiak C. Comparative analysis of synthesis techniques for citrate-capped gold nanoparticles: Insights into optimized wet-chemical approaches for controlled morphology and stability. Nanoscale. 2025;17:23373–86. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5NR02727F.10.1039/D5NR02727F ↗
45. Daruich De Souza C, Ribeiro Nogueira B, Rostelato MEC. Review of the methodologies used in the synthesis gold nanoparticles by chemical reduction. J Alloys Compd. 2019;798:714–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.05.153.10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.05.153 ↗
46. Chen H, Zhou K, Zhao G. Gold nanoparticles: From synthesis, properties to their potential application as colorimetric sensors in food safety screening. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2018;78:83–94.10.1016/j.tifs.2018.05.027 ↗
47. Zahdeh M, Karaman R. Gold nanoparticles in biomedical applications: synthesis, functionalization, and recent advances. Molecules. 2025;31(1):17. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31010017.10.3390/molecules31010017 ↗
48. Su J, Huang X, Shao Q. Emerging two dimensional metastable-phase oxides: insights and prospects in synthesis and catalysis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2024;63(11):e202318028. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202318028.10.1002/anie.202318028 ↗
49. Hu X, Liu K, Cai Y, Zang Q, Zhai T. 2D oxides for electronics and optoelectronics. Small Sci. 2022;2(8):2200008. https://doi.org/10.1002/smsc.202200008.10.1002/smsc.202200008 ↗
50. Dou X, Wang X, Qian S, Liu N, Yuan X. From understanding the roles of tetraoctylammonium bromide in the two-phase Brust–Schiffrin method to tuning the size of gold nanoclusters. Nanoscale. 2020;12(38):19855–60.10.1039/D0NR04439C ↗
51. Das A, Devi L, Tandava V, Manchala S. Two-dimensional metal oxide nanomaterials for electrochemical conversion of CO2 into energy-rich chemicals. In: Sadasivuni KK, Kannan K, Abdullah AM, Kumar B, editors. 2D Nanomaterials for CO2 Conversion into Chemicals and Fuels. The Royal Society of Chemistry; 2022. p. 171–95. https://doi.org/10.1039/9781839165542-00171.10.1039/9781839165542-00171 ↗
52. Zhou Y, Wang CY, Zhu YR, Chen ZY. A novel ultraviolet irradiation technique for shape-controlled synthesis of gold nanoparticles at room temperature. Chem Mater. 1999;11(9):2310–2.10.1021/cm990315h ↗
53. Gul M, Kashif M, Muhammad S, Azizi S, Sun H. Various methods of synthesis and applications of gold-based nanomaterials: a detailed review. Cryst Growth Des. 2026;25(7):2227–66. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.cgd.4c01687.10.1021/acs.cgd.4c01687 ↗
54. Sati A, Mali SN, Samdani N, Annadurai S, Dongre R, Satpute N, et al. From past to present: gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in daily life─synthesis mechanisms, influencing factors, characterization, toxicity, and emerging applications in biomedicine, nanoelectronics, and materials science. ACS Omega. 2025;10(31):33999–4087. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.5c03162.10.1021/acsomega.5c03162 ↗
55. Walker CH, St. John JV, Wisian-Neilson P. Synthesis and size control of gold nanoparticles stabilized by poly (methylphenylphosphazene). J Am Chem Soc. 2001;123(16):3846–7.10.1021/ja005812+ ↗
56. Wang X, Li G, Chen T, Yang M, Zhang Z, Wu T, et al. Polymer-encapsulated gold-nanoparticle dimers: facile preparation and catalytical application in guided growth of dimeric ZnO-nanowires. Nano Lett. 2008;8(9):2643–7.10.1021/nl080820q ↗
57. Wang Z, Kanaras AG, Bates AD, Cosstick R, Brust M. Enzymatic DNA processing on gold nanoparticles. J Mater Chem. 2004;14(4):578–80.10.1039/b314328g ↗
58. Sakamoto M, Fujistuka M, Majima T. Light as a construction tool of metal nanoparticles: Synthesis and mechanism. J Photochem Photobiol C Photochem Rev. 2009;10:33–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2008.11.002.10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2008.11.002 ↗
59. Scaiano J, Billone P, Gonzalez CM, Marett L, Marin ML, McGilvray KL, et al. Photochemical routes to silver and gold nanoparticles. Pure Appl Chem. 2009;81:635–47. https://doi.org/10.1351/PAC-CON-08-09-11.10.1351/PAC-CON-08-09-11 ↗
60. Elsupikhe RF, Ahmad MB, Shameli K, Ibrahim NA, Zainuddin N. Photochemical reduction as a green method for the synthesis and size control of silver nanoparticles in κ-Carrageenan. IEEE Trans Nanotechnol. 2016;15:209–13. https://doi.org/10.1109/TNANO.2015.2513201.10.1109/TNANO.2015.2513201 ↗
61. Reddy GB, Madhusudhan A, Ramakrishna D, Ayodhya D, Venkatesham M, Veerabhadram G. Green chemistry approach for the synthesis of gold nanoparticles with gum kondagogu: characterization, catalytic and antibacterial activity. J Nanostruct Chem. 2015;5:185–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40097-015-0149-y.10.1007/s40097-015-0149-y ↗
62. Dos Santos MA, Paterno LG, Moreira SGC, Sales MJA. Original photochemical synthesis of Ag nanoparticles mediated by potato starch. SN Appl Sci. 2019;1:554. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-0586-1.10.1007/s42452-019-0586-1 ↗
63. El-Sheikh MA. A novel photosynthesis of carboxymethyl starch-stabilized silver nanoparticles. Sci World J. 2014;2014:514563. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/514563.10.1155/2014/514563 ↗
64. Abedini A, Daud AR, Hamid MAA, Othman NK, Saion E. A review on radiation-induced nucleation and growth of colloidal metallic nanoparticles. Nanoscale Res Lett. 2013;8:474. https://doi.org/10.1186/1556-276X-8-474.10.1186/1556-276X-8-474 ↗
65. Mathew S, Prakash A, Radhakrishnan EK. Sunlight mediated rapid synthesis of small size range silver nanoparticles using Zingiber officinale rhizome extract and its antibacterial activity analysis. Inorg Nano-Metal Chem. 2018;48:139–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/24701556.2017.1373295.10.1080/24701556.2017.1373295 ↗
66. Mallick K, Wang ZL, Pal T. Seed-mediated successive growth of gold particles accomplished by UV irradiation: A photochemical approach for size-controlled synthesis. J Photochem Photobiol Chem. 2001;140:75–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1010-6030(01)00389-6.10.1016/S1010-6030(01)00389-6 ↗
67. Darroudi M, Ahmad MB, Zak AK, Zamiri R, Hakimi M. Fabrication and characterization of gelatin stabilized silver nanoparticles under UV-light. Int J Mol Sci. 2011;12:6346–56. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms12096346.10.3390/ijms12096346 ↗
68. Kempa T, Farrer RA, Giersig M, Fourkas JT. Photochemical synthesis and multiphoton luminescence of monodisperse silver nanocrystals. Plasmonics. 2006;1:45–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11468-006-9008-5.10.1007/s11468-006-9008-5 ↗
69. Huang W-C, Chen Y-C. Photochemical synthesis of polygonal gold nanoparticles. J Nanopart Res. 2007;10:697–702. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-007-9293-8.10.1007/s11051-007-9293-8 ↗
70. Sengani M, Grumezescu AM, Rajeswari VD. Recent trends and methodologies in gold nanoparticle synthesis—A prospective review on drug delivery aspect. OpenNano. 2017;2:37–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onano.2017.07.001.10.1016/j.onano.2017.07.001 ↗
71. Slepička P, Kasálková NS, Siegel J, Kolská Z, Švorčík V. Methods of gold and silver nanoparticles preparation. Materials Basel. 2019;13:1. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13010001.10.3390/ma13010001 ↗
72. Valandro S, Poli A, Neumann M, Schmitt C. Photochemical synthesis of Ag and Au nanoparticles using a thioxanthone substituted chitosan as simultaneous photoinitiator and stabilizer. J Braz Chem Soc. 2019;30:2642–8. https://doi.org/10.21577/0103-5053.20190182.10.21577/0103-5053.20190182 ↗
73. Abu Bakar NHH, Ismail J, Abu Bakar M. Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles in natural rubber. Mater Chem Phys. 2007;104:276–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2007.03.015.10.1016/j.matchemphys.2007.03.015 ↗
74. Courrol L, Silva FRDO, Gomes L. A simple method to synthesize silver nanoparticles by photo-reduction. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp. 2007;305:54–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2007.04.052.10.1016/j.colsurfa.2007.04.052 ↗
75. Abu Bakar NHH, Ismail J, Abu Bakar M. Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles in natural rubber. Mater Chem Phys. 2007;104:276–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2007.03.015.10.1016/j.matchemphys.2007.03.015 ↗
76. Lin SK, Cheng WT. Fabrication and characterization of colloidal silver nanoparticle via photochemical synthesis. Mater Lett. 2020;261:261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2019.127077.10.1016/j.matlet.2019.127077 ↗
77. Łukowiec D, Radoń A. Self-organization of silver nanoparticles during synthesis of Ag–Au nanoalloy by UV irradiation method. J Mater Sci. 2020;55:2796–801. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-04136-w.10.1007/s10853-019-04136-w ↗
78. Wang L, Wei G, Guo C, Sun L, Sun Y, Song Y, et al. Photochemical synthesis and self-assembly of gold nanoparticles. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp. 2008;312:148–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2007.06.043.10.1016/j.colsurfa.2007.06.043 ↗
79. Dubas ST, Pimpan V. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles for ammonia sensing. Talanta. 2008;76:29–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2008.01.062.10.1016/j.talanta.2008.01.062 ↗
80. Gabriel JS, Gonzaga VA, Poli AL, Schmitt CC. Photochemical synthesis of silver nanoparticles on chitosans/montmorillonite nanocomposite films and antibacterial activity. Carbohydr Polym. 2017;171:202–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.05.021.10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.05.021 ↗
81. Kora AJ, Manjusha R, Arunachalam J. Superior bactericidal activity of SDS capped silver nanoparticles: synthesis and characterization. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl. 2009;29:2104–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2009.04.010.10.1016/j.msec.2009.04.010 ↗
82. Abu Bakar NHH, Ismail J, Abu Bakar M. Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles in natural rubber. Mater Chem Phys. 2007;104:276–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2007.03.015.10.1016/j.matchemphys.2007.03.015 ↗
83. Zhang Z, Yu J, Zhang J, Lian Y, Shi Z, Cheng Z, et al. pH-controlled growth of triangular silver nanoprisms on a large scale. Nanoscale Adv. 2019;1:4904–8. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9NA00635D.10.1039/C9NA00635D ↗
84. Lee K-H, Huang K-M, Tseng W-L, Chiu T-C, Lin Y-W, Chang H-T. Manipulation of the growth of gold and silver nanomaterials on glass by seeding approach. Langmuir. 2007;23:1435–42. https://doi.org/10.1021/la061880j.10.1021/la061880j ↗
85. Sakamoto M, Fujistuka M, Majima T. Light as a construction tool of metal nanoparticles: Synthesis and mechanism. J Photochem Photobiol C Photochem Rev. 2009;10:33–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2008.11.002.10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2008.11.002 ↗
86. Bárta J, Procházková L, Vaněček V, Kuzár M, Nikl M, Čuba V. Photochemical synthesis of nano- and micro-crystalline particles in aqueous solutions. Appl Surf Sci. 2019;479:506–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.02.087.10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.02.087 ↗
87. Veeman D, Shree M, Varsha, Sureshkumar P, Jagadeesha T, Natrayan L, Ravichandran M. Paramasivam, Prabhu, Sustainable Development of Carbon Nanocomposites: Synthesis and Classification for Environmental Remediation, Journal of Nanomaterials, 2021;5840645:21. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/584064510.1155/2021/5840645 ↗
88. Jara N, Milán NS, Rahman A, Mouheb L, Boffito DC, Jeffryes C, et al. Photochemical synthesis of gold and silver nanoparticles—a review. Molecules. 2021;26(15):4585. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26154585.10.3390/molecules26154585 ↗
89. Huang L, Zhai ML, Long DW, Peng J, Xu L, Wu GZ, et al. UV-induced synthesis, characterization and formation mechanism of silver nanoparticles in alkalic carboxymethylated chitosan solution. J Nanopart Res. 2008;10:1193–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-007-9353-0.10.1007/s11051-007-9353-0 ↗
90. Gabriel JS, Gonzaga VA, Poli AL, Schmitt CC. Photochemical synthesis of silver nanoparticles on chitosans/montmorillonite nanocomposite films and antibacterial activity. Carbohydr Polym. 2017;171:202–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.05.021.10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.05.021 ↗
91. Ali Dheyab M, Tang J, Abdul Aziz A, Hussein Nowfal S, Jameel M, Alrosan M, et al. Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles and their emerging applications in cancer imaging and therapy: a review. Rev Inorg Chem. 2025;45(4):663–85. https://doi.org/10.1515/revic-2024-0048.10.1515/revic-2024-0048 ↗
92. Dheyab MA, Abdul Aziz A, Hussein Nowfal S, Al-Mafarjy SS, Abdullah W, Suardi N, et al. Turning food waste-derived ultrasmall gold nanoparticles as a photothermal agent for breast cancer cell eradication. Inorg Chem Commun. 2024;169:113030. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inoche.2024.113030.10.1016/j.inoche.2024.113030 ↗
93. Reijnders L. Is “green” gold and silver nanoparticle synthesis environmentally friendly? Nanomaterials (Basel). 2025;15(14):1095. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15141095.10.3390/nano15141095 ↗
94. Verma J, Kumar C, Sharma M, Saxena S. Biotechnological advances in microbial synthesis of gold nanoparticles: optimizations and applications. 3 Biotech. 2024;14(11):263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-024-04110-7.10.1007/s13205-024-04110-7 ↗
95. Zarei Z, Azarnivand H, Moazeni M, et al. Salvia sclarea L. mediated green synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and evaluation of their antibacterial, anticandidal, and scolicidal properties. Sci Rep. 2025;15:33392. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-18448-2.10.1038/s41598-025-18448-2 ↗
96. Singh NA, Narang J, Garg D, Jain V, Payasi D, Suleman S, et al. Nanoparticles synthesis via microorganisms and their prospective applications in agriculture. Plant Nano Biol. 2023;5:100047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plana.2023.100047.10.1016/j.plana.2023.100047 ↗
97. Owaid MN, Rabeea MA, Abdul Aziz A, Jameel MS, Dheyab MA. Mycogenic fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Picoa, Pezizales, characterization and their antifungal activity. Environ Nanotechnol Monit Manag. 2022;17:100612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2021.100612.10.1016/j.enmm.2021.100612 ↗
98. Owaid MN, Rabeea MA, Abdul Aziz A, Jameel MS, Dheyab MA. Mycogenic fabrication of silver nanoparticles using Picoa, Pezizales, characterization and their antifungal activity. Environ Nanotechnol Monit Manag. 2022;17:100612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2021.100612.10.1016/j.enmm.2021.100612 ↗
99. Rana A, Yadav K, Jagadevan S. A comprehensive review on green synthesis of nature-inspired metal nanoparticles: mechanism, application and toxicity. J Clean Prod. 2020;272:122880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122880.10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122880 ↗
100. Rajasekar T, Karthika K, Muralitharan G, et al. Green synthesis of gold nanoparticles using extracellular metabolites of fish gut microbes and their antimicrobial properties. Braz J Microbiol. 2020;51:957–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42770-020-00263-8.10.1007/s42770-020-00263-8 ↗