journal article·2026-06-08Open access

Scaling Low-Temperature CO 2 -to-Syngas Electroreduction: Failure Modes, Engineering Bottlenecks, and Mitigation Strategies

Senthilkumar Pachamuthu, Jing Gao, Adnan Ozden, Ulrich Legrand, Marco Favaro, Mark Isaacs, F. Pelayo García de Arquer, Cátia Azenha, Adélio Mendes, Edward H. Sargent, Csaba Janáky, Michael Grätzel, Pablo Jiménez-Calvo

Abstract

Low-temperature CO2 electroreduction (CO2eR) to syngas offers tunable H2:CO ratios and a renewable route to decarbonized syngas production, yet catalyst-level advances rarely translate to scalable, durable systems. This review addresses that disconnect with a systems-engineering perspective. We first establish the component foundations, electrolytes, membranes, and cell architectures of flow cells and zero-gap membrane electrode assembly (MEA) electrolyzers, together with integrated versus decoupled syngas production modes, then analyze the engineering failure modes that dominate at scale: non-uniform current distribution, localized hotspots, electrode flooding, salt precipitation, and thermal gradients. Single-pass CO2 conversion efficiency (SPCE) is introduced as a co-equal metric alongside Faradaic and energy efficiency (FE/EE). Original contributions include a standardized accelerated stress test (AST) protocol, a lifecycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) framework with quantitative carbon footprint benchmarking, a mitigation strategy compatibility matrix, and three-benchmark design pathways targeting high EE, high stability, and high SPCE, providing a
Source: openaire · Quality: candidate unverified · Source record ↗

Research context

OpenAlex topics: CO2 Reduction Techniques and Catalysts · Ammonia Synthesis and Nitrogen Reduction · Catalysts for Methane Reforming

SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.

Affiliations

Laboratory of Photonics and Interfaces

Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)

Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering

Khalifa University

Center for Catalysis and Separations (CeCaS)

Electro Carbon Inc., 261-3275 Rue de l'Industrie, Saint-Mathieu-de-Beloeil, Québec J3G 0M8, Canada

Chemical Engineering Department, Polytechnique Montréal, 2500 Chemin De Polytechnique, Montréal, Quebec H3T 1J4, Canada

Institute for Solar Fuels, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energy GmbH, Hahn-Meitner-Platz 1, Berlin 14109, Germany

HarwellXPS, Research Complex at Harwell, Rutherford Appleton Lab

Department of Chemistry, University College London, 20 Gower Street, London, WC1H 0AJ, United Kingdom

ICFO — Institut de Ciències Fotòniques, The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology

LEPABE − Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr Roberto Frias, Porto 4200-465, Portugal

ALiCE − Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr Roberto Frias, Porto, Portugal

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, 35 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4, Canada

eChemicles Zrt, Alsó Kikötő sor 11, Szeged H-6726, Hungary

Department of Physical Chemistry and Materials Science, University of Szeged, Rerrich Square 1, Szeged H-6720, Hungary

Chair ‘Chemistry of Thin Film Materials’, Materials Chemistry section, Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, IZNF, Cauerstraße 3, Erlangen 91058, Germany

Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Profile Center Solar (FAU Solar), Freyeslebenstraße 1, Erlangen 91058, Germany

Funding

Khalifa University of Science, Technology and Research · HORIZON EUROPE Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions · HORIZON EUROPE Research Infrastructures

References (100+)

Show source-provided references
1. 10.1021/ACSAEM.1C0157710.1021/ACSAEM.1C01577 ↗
2. 10.1002/gch2.20230018510.1002/gch2.202300185 ↗
3. 10.1016/J.JCOU.2021.10148710.1016/J.JCOU.2021.101487 ↗
4. 10.1016/J.RENENE.2013.12.02510.1016/J.RENENE.2013.12.025 ↗
5. 10.1016/S0960-8524(01)00118-310.1016/S0960-8524(01)00118-3 ↗
6. 10.1016/J.JOULE.2021.01.00710.1016/J.JOULE.2021.01.007 ↗
7. 10.1016/J.SOLENER.2003.12.01210.1016/J.SOLENER.2003.12.012 ↗
8. 10.1126/science.aav350610.1126/science.aav3506 ↗
9. 10.1038/s41929-018-0133-210.1038/s41929-018-0133-2 ↗
10. 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.11109510.1016/J.RSER.2021.111095 ↗
11. 10.1016/B978-0-443-18439-0.00004-510.1016/B978-0-443-18439-0.00004-5 ↗
12. 10.1016/J.CHEMPR.2024.10239610.1016/J.CHEMPR.2024.102396 ↗
13. 10.1021/ACS.ENERGYFUELS.4C0141910.1021/ACS.ENERGYFUELS.4C01419 ↗
14. 10.1016/J.FUEL.2024.13212810.1016/J.FUEL.2024.132128 ↗
15. 10.1039/D4SU00662C10.1039/D4SU00662C ↗
16. 10.1002/adfm.20250139310.1002/adfm.202501393 ↗
17. 10.1016/J.JCIS.2024.09.02810.1016/J.JCIS.2024.09.028 ↗
18. 10.1002/GCH2.20230007310.1002/GCH2.202300073 ↗
19. 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b0007510.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00075 ↗
20. 10.1002/ADMA.20240321710.1002/ADMA.202403217 ↗
21. 10.1002/ADvs20240645710.1002/ADvs202406457 ↗
22. 10.1002/ADFM.20180233910.1002/ADFM.201802339 ↗
23. 10.1016/J.APSUSC.2024.16206510.1016/J.APSUSC.2024.162065 ↗
24. 10.1016/J.APCATB.2022.12218510.1016/J.APCATB.2022.122185 ↗
25. 10.1039/D0EE02589E10.1039/D0EE02589E ↗
26. 10.1021/ACS.IECR.3C0445910.1021/ACS.IECR.3C04459 ↗
27. 10.1039/C8EE03134G10.1039/C8EE03134G ↗
28. 10.1016/J.CEJ.2024.15406010.1016/J.CEJ.2024.154060 ↗
29. 10.1155/2023/318310810.1155/2023/3183108 ↗
30. 10.1021/ACSSUSCHEMENG.4C0063010.1021/ACSSUSCHEMENG.4C00630 ↗
31. 10.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.4C0095510.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.4C00955 ↗
32. 10.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.3C0244610.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.3C02446 ↗
33. 10.26434/CHEMRXIV-2025-PW37P10.26434/CHEMRXIV-2025-PW37P ↗
34. 10.1021/ACS.ACCOUNTS.8B0001010.1021/ACS.ACCOUNTS.8B00010 ↗
35. 10.1039/D2EE03725D10.1039/D2EE03725D ↗
36. 10.1039/D4TA01994F10.1039/D4TA01994F ↗
37. 10.1002/CSSC.20190254710.1002/CSSC.201902547 ↗
38. 10.1038/srep0194310.1038/srep01943 ↗
39. 10.1016/J.JOULE.2024.07.00410.1016/J.JOULE.2024.07.004 ↗
40. 10.1016/J.APENERGY.2019.11430510.1016/J.APENERGY.2019.114305 ↗
41. 10.1038/s41586-019-1782-210.1038/s41586-019-1782-2 ↗
42. 10.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.0C0126610.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.0C01266 ↗
43. 10.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.2C0188510.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.2C01885 ↗
44. 10.1016/J.JOULE.2019.07.02110.1016/J.JOULE.2019.07.021 ↗
45. 10.1038/s41467-021-23023-010.1038/s41467-021-23023-0 ↗
46. 10.1039/C2EE03403D10.1039/C2EE03403D ↗
47. 10.1038/S41467-024-51475-710.1038/S41467-024-51475-7 ↗
48. 10.1039/C9TA01932D10.1039/C9TA01932D ↗
49. 10.1016/J.RSER.2010.07.01410.1016/J.RSER.2010.07.014 ↗
50. 10.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.7B0109610.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.7B01096 ↗
51. 10.1016/J.JOULE.2018.05.00610.1016/J.JOULE.2018.05.006 ↗
52. 10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2013.01.15110.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2013.01.151 ↗
53. 10.1038/s41560-021-00813-w10.1038/s41560-021-00813-w ↗
54. 10.1039/D5EY00322A10.1039/D5EY00322A ↗
55. 10.1038/s41467-022-33145-810.1038/s41467-022-33145-8 ↗
56. 10.1039/9781839167645-0041310.1039/9781839167645-00413 ↗
57. 10.1021/ACS.CHEMREV.8B0070510.1021/ACS.CHEMREV.8B00705 ↗
58. 10.1038/s41578-021-00356-210.1038/s41578-021-00356-2 ↗
59. 10.1126/science.aas910010.1126/science.aas9100 ↗
60. 10.1039/D0EE03756G10.1039/D0EE03756G ↗
61. 10.31635/CCSCHEM.026.20250715410.31635/CCSCHEM.026.202507154 ↗
62. 10.1021/ACSAEM.2C0287310.1021/ACSAEM.2C02873 ↗
63. 10.1002/ANIE.20221139610.1002/ANIE.202211396 ↗
64. 10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2020.12.21710.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2020.12.217 ↗
65. 10.1016/J.CEJ.2021.13050110.1016/J.CEJ.2021.130501 ↗
66. 10.1038/s41578-024-00696-910.1038/s41578-024-00696-9 ↗
67. 10.1021/ACS.IECR.3C0011810.1021/ACS.IECR.3C00118 ↗
68. 10.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.4C0324210.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.4C03242 ↗
69. 10.1039/D2TA09966G10.1039/D2TA09966G ↗
70. 10.1038/s41560-024-01695-410.1038/s41560-024-01695-4 ↗
71. 10.1021/ACSAEM.2C0278310.1021/ACSAEM.2C02783 ↗
72. 10.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.2C0155510.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.2C01555 ↗
73. 10.1021/ACSAMI.4C0909510.1021/ACSAMI.4C09095 ↗
74. 10.1002/ANIE.20230650310.1002/ANIE.202306503 ↗
75. 10.1038/s41560-020-00761-x10.1038/s41560-020-00761-x ↗
76. 10.1016/j.joule.2022.11.00310.1016/j.joule.2022.11.003 ↗
77. 10.1021/PRECHEM.4C0000210.1021/PRECHEM.4C00002 ↗
78. 10.1016/J.APCATB.2023.12329110.1016/J.APCATB.2023.123291 ↗
79. 10.1016/J.JCOU.2019.04.00710.1016/J.JCOU.2019.04.007 ↗
80. 10.1021/ACSCATAL.0C0429710.1021/ACSCATAL.0C04297 ↗
81. 10.1021/JACS.4C0951210.1021/JACS.4C09512 ↗
82. 10.1021/ACS.ACCOUNTS.2C0008010.1021/ACS.ACCOUNTS.2C00080 ↗
83. 10.1002/AENM.20240062510.1002/AENM.202400625 ↗
84. 10.1016/J.CHEMPR.2021.12.00210.1016/J.CHEMPR.2021.12.002 ↗
85. 10.1016/J.JOULE.2018.09.01310.1016/J.JOULE.2018.09.013 ↗
86. 10.1002/ADFM.20230092610.1002/ADFM.202300926 ↗
87. 10.1038/s41467-023-38963-y10.1038/s41467-023-38963-y ↗
88. 10.1038/s41560-024-01574-y10.1038/s41560-024-01574-y ↗
89. 10.1038/s41467-024-52409-z10.1038/s41467-024-52409-z ↗
90. 10.1038/S41467-022-31295-310.1038/S41467-022-31295-3 ↗
91. 10.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.4C0353810.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.4C03538 ↗
92. 10.1038/s41560-023-01415-410.1038/s41560-023-01415-4 ↗
93. 10.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.4C0023910.1021/ACSENERGYLETT.4C00239 ↗
94. 10.1038/S44160-022-00234-X10.1038/S44160-022-00234-X ↗
95. 10.1038/S41929-023-01003-510.1038/S41929-023-01003-5 ↗
96. 10.1038/s41467-023-37898-810.1038/s41467-023-37898-8 ↗
97. 10.1002/SMLL.20230595810.1002/SMLL.202305958 ↗
98. 10.1016/J.JPOWSOUR.2024.23610410.1016/J.JPOWSOUR.2024.236104 ↗
99. 10.1039/D0EM00355G10.1039/D0EM00355G ↗
100. 10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2021.07.19910.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2021.07.199 ↗