Why is the modified wedge-opening-loaded test inadequate for characterizing gaseous hydrogen embrittlement in pipeline steels? A review
Source abstract
Abstract
Abstract International hydrogen pipeline code ASME B31.12 requires the measurement of hydrogen affected fracture toughness using constant load or displacement tests standardized in ASTM E1681. The modified wedge-opening-loaded (WOL) specimen is loaded with a bolt that sets a constant crack mouth opening displacement and the initial stress intensity factor (K Iapp ). In this review paper, the sizing restrictions imposed by the testing procedures are analyzed considering the strength, wall thickness, diameter and toughness of existing and commercially available pipelines. The conclusion is that specimens with the standard geometry for constant displacement test in ASTM E1681 cannot be extracted from most used pipelines. The equations proposed in standards to calculate K Iapp as a function of crack mouth opening displacement cannot be applied and particular expressions must be calculated case by case. Furthermore, loading the specimen to the required K Iapp results in exceedingly large normal stresses in the bolt, increasing the risk of fracture of the bolt during loading of the specimen. Additionally, literature results of pipeline stees tested with the constant displacement in gaseous hydrogen are discussed and their significance is analyzed considering the material performance measured under rising displacement tests in gaseous hydrogen.
Source: crossref · Quality: baseline
Research context
OpenAlex topics: Hydrogen embrittlement and corrosion behaviors in metals · Material Properties and Failure Mechanisms · Fatigue and fracture mechanics
SciVX discovery tags are terminology-based. OpenAlex topics are source-provided classifications.
Affiliations
Instituto Sabato, UNSAM/CNEA , Av. General Paz 1499, San Martín , Buenos Aires B1650KNA , Argentina
National Commission of Atomic Energy of Argentina , Av. General Paz 1499, San Martín , Buenos Aires B1650KNA , Argentina
National Scientific and Technical Research Council , Godoy Cruz, 2290 , Buenos Aires C1425FQB , Argentina
YPF Tecnología , Av. del Petroleo Argentino 900-1198, Berisso , Buenos Aires , Argentina
TEP Consultora SRL , Buenos Aires , Argentina
References (68)
Show source-provided references
1. Al-Rumaih, A.M. and Gangloff, R.P. (2005). New fracture mechanics approach to characterize internal hydrogen embrittlement of steel for fitness-for-service modeling. In: Proceedings of the 11th international conference on fracture. ICF, Turin, Italy, pp. 5044.
2. Anderson, T.L. (2005). Fracture mechanics: fundamentals and applications, 4th ed. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL.
3. Andresen, P.L. (1988). Environmentally assisted growth rate response of nonsensitized AISI 316 grade stainless steels in high temperature water. Corrosion 44: 450–460, https://doi.org/10.5006/1.3583961.10.5006/1.3583961 ↗
4. Andresen, P.L. (2019). A brief history of environmental cracking in hot water. Corrosion 75: 240–253, https://doi.org/10.5006/2881.10.5006/2881 ↗
5. API 5L (2018). Specification 5L line pipe, 46th ed. American Petroleum Institute, New York City.
6. ASME B31.12 (2023). Hydrogen piping and pipelines. ASME code for pressure piping B31. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York City.
7. ASME BPVC VIII.3 (2017). ASME boiler & pressure vessel code. Section VIII: rules for construction of pressure vessels. Division 3: alternative rules for construction of high-pressure vessels. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York City.
8. ASTM E1681-03 (2020). Standard test method for determining threshold stress intensity factor for environment-assisted cracking of metallic materials. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.
9. ASTM E1820-20b (2020). Standard test method for measurement of fracture toughness. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.
10. ASTM E399-09e2 (2009). Standard test method for linear-elastic plane strain fracture toughness KIc of metallic materials. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.
11. ASTM E647-15 (2015). Standard test method for measurement of fatigue crack growth rates. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.
12. Bandyopadhyay, N., Kameda, J., and McMahon, C.J. (1983). Hydrogen-induced cracking in 4340-type steel: effects of composition, yield strength, and H2 pressure. Metall. Trans. A 14: 881–888, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02644292.10.1007/BF02644292 ↗
13. Bezensek, B., Hopkin, S., Martin, T., and Guijt, W. (2023). Fracture and fatigue crack growth performance of a vintage X60 pipeline material in gaseous H2 and comparison with wet sour service. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2023 pressure vessels & piping conference PVP2023 July 16–21, 2023. ASME, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, PVP2023-105972.10.1115/PVP2023-105972 ↗
14. Briottet, L. and Ez-Zaki, H. (2018). Influence of hydrogen and oxygen impurity content in a natural gas/hydrogen blend on the toughness of an API X70 steel. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2018 pressure vessels and piping conference PVP2018, July 15–20, 2018. ASME, Prague, Czech Republic.10.1115/PVP2018-84658 ↗
15. Bruzzoni, P. and Garavaglia, R. (1992). Anodic iron oxide films and their effect on the hydrogen permeation through steel. Corros. Sci. 33: 1797–1807, https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-938x(92)90010-z.10.1016/0010-938X(92)90010-Z ↗
16. Cheng, W. and Cheng, Y.F. (2023). A techno-economic study of the strategy for hydrogen transport by pipelines in Canada. J. Pipel. Sci. Eng. 3: 100112, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpse.2023.100112.10.1016/j.jpse.2023.100112 ↗
17. Cialone, H.J. and Holbrook, J.H. (1988). Sensitivity of steels to degradation in gaseous hydrogen. In: Raymond, L. (Ed.). Hydrogen embrittlement: prevention and control. ASTM STP 962. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 134–152.10.1520/STP45297S ↗
18. Clark, W.G.Jr. and Landes, J.D. (1976). An evaluation of rising load Kiscc testing, in stress corrosion: new approaches. ASTM STP 610. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, USA., pp. 108–127.10.1520/STP28674S ↗
19. Cravero, S., Cristea, M.E., Deul, M.L., Walters, C.L., Valdez, M.E., and Darcis, P. (2023). PVP2023-105227, Challenges in KIH testing using WOL samples for pipeline applications. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2023 pressure vessels & piping conference PVP2023 July 16–21, 2023. Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
20. Echaniz, G., Morales, C., and Pérez, T. (1998). The effect of microstructure on the KISSC of low alloy carbon steels. In: NACE Corrosion‘ 98. NACE International, San Diego, USA, pp. 22–27.10.5006/C1998-98120 ↗
21. EPRG (European Pipeline Research Group)- (2024). Technical report. Draft best practice guidelines for small scale fracture toughness testing in hydrogen gas of carbon steel pipeline material, Rev. 4a – 20 th June 2024. European Pipeline Research Group, Duisburg, Germany.
22. Folga, S.M. (2007). Natural gas pipeline technology overview. Technical Report, ANL/EVS/TM/08-5, Argonne National Laboratory. Oak Ridge, TN, USA: Department of Energy.10.2172/925391 ↗
23. Gangloff, R.P. (2003). Hydrogen assisted cracking of high strength alloys. In: Milne, I., Ritchie, R.O., and Karihaloo, B. (Eds.). Comprehensive structural integrity, Vol. 6. Elsevier, Science, New York, NY, pp. 31–101.10.1016/B0-08-043749-4/06134-6 ↗
24. Gerboni, R. (2016). Introduction to hydrogen transportation. In: Gupta, R.B., Basile, A., and Nejat Veziroglu, T. (Eds.). Compendium of hydrogen energy. Hydrogen storage, distribution and infrastructure, Vol. 2. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, UK, pp. 283–300.10.1016/B978-1-78242-362-1.00011-0 ↗
25. Holbrook, J.H., Cialone, H.J., Mayfield, M.E., and Scott, P.M. (1982). The effect of hydrogen on low-cycle-fatigue life and subcritical crack growth in pipeline steels, prepared for Brookhaven National Laboratory under contract with. the United States Department of Energy.
26. ISO 3183 (2019). Petroleum and natural gas industries – Steel pipe for pipeline transportation systems. BSI Standards Institution, London, United Kingdom.
27. ISO 7539-6 (2018). International Standard, Fourth edition, Corrosion of metals and alloys – Stress corrosion testing, Part 6: Preparation and use of precracked specimens for tests under constant load or constant displacement. ISO, Geneva, Switzerland.
28. Joyce, J.A. and Tregoning, R.L. (2000). Development of consistent size criteria for ASTM combined fracture mechanics standards. In: Fatigue and fracture mechanics. 30th volume. ASTM STP 1360. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, Philadelphia, pp. 357–376.10.1520/STP13414S ↗
29. Kappes, M.A. and Perez, T.E. (2023a). Hydrogen blending in existing natural gas transmission pipelines: a review of hydrogen embrittlement, governing codes, and life prediction methods. Corros. Rev. 41: 319–347, https://doi.org/10.1515/corrrev-2022-0083.10.1515/corrrev-2022-0083 ↗
30. Kappes, M.A. and Perez, T.E. (2023b). Blending hydrogen in existing natural gas pipelines: integrity consequences from a fitness for service perspective. J. Pipeline Sci. Eng. 3: 100141, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpse.2023.100141.10.1016/j.jpse.2023.100141 ↗
31. Kiefner, J.F. and Trench, C.J. (2001). Oil pipeline characteristics and risk factors: illustrations from the decade of construction. Report, American Petroleum Institute’s Pipeline Committee. Washington D.C.: API.
32. Koren, E., Hagen, C.M.H., Wang, D., Lu, X., Johnsen, R., and Yamabe, J. (2023). Experimental comparison of gaseous and electrochemical hydrogen charging in X65 pipeline steel using the permeation technique. Corros. Sci. 215: 111025.10.1016/j.corsci.2023.111025 ↗
33. Lam, P.S., Sindelar, R.L., and Adams, T.M. (2007). Literature survey of gaseous hydrogen effects on the mechanical properties of carbon and low alloy steels. In: Proceedings of PVP2007 2007 ASME pressure vessels and piping division conference July 22–26, 2007. ASME, San Antonio, Texas.
34. Lisagor, W.B. (1984). Influence of precracked specimen configuration and starting stress intensity on the stress corrosion cracking of 4340 steel. In: Dean, S.W., Pugh, E.N., and Ugiansky, G.M. (Eds.). Environment sensitive fracture: evaluation and comparison of test methods. ASTM STP 821. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, pp. 80–97.10.1520/STP34428S ↗
35. Loginow, A.W. and Phelps, E.H. (1975). Steels for seamless hydrogen pressure vessels. Corrosion 31: 404–412, https://doi.org/10.5006/0010-9312-31.11.404.10.5006/0010-9312-31.11.404 ↗
36. Manjoine, M.J. (1965). Biaxial brittle fracture tests. J. Basic Eng. 87: 293–298, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.3650541.10.1115/1.3650541 ↗
37. NACE TM0177 (2016). Test method laboratory testing of metals for resistance to sulfide stress cracking and stress corrosion cracking in H2S. NACE International, Houston, Texas.
38. Nelson, H.G. (1974). Testing for hydrogen environment embrittlement: primary and secondary influences. In: Hydrogen embrittlement testing. ASTM STP 542. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, USA., pp. 152–169.10.1520/STP38936S ↗
39. Nguyen, T.T., Heo, H.M., Park, J., Nahm, S.H., and Beak, U.B. (2021). Fracture properties and fatigue life assessment of API X70 pipeline steel under the effect of an environment containing hydrogen. J. Mech. Sci. Technol. 35: 1445–1455, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12206-021-0310-0.10.1007/s12206-021-0310-0 ↗
40. Nibur, K.A., Somerday, B.P., San Marchi, C., Foulk, J.W., Dadfarnia, M., Sofronis, P., and Hayden, G.A. (2010). Measurement and interpretation of threshold stress intensity factors for steels in high-pressure hydrogen gas. Sandia Report, SAND2010-4633, Sandia National Laboratories Oak Ridge, TN: DOE.
41. Nibur, K.A., Somerday, B.P., San Marchi, C., Foulk, J.W., Dadfarnia, M., and Sofronis, P. (2013). The relationship between crack-tip strain and subcritical cracking thresholds for steels in high-pressure hydrogen gas. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 44A: 248–269, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-012-1400-5.10.1007/s11661-012-1400-5 ↗
42. Nishihara, Y. and Okano, H. (2023). PVP2023-105725, Effect of high pressure hydrogen gas on fatigue and fracture properties of API X65 linepipe steels. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2023 pressure vessels & piping conference PVP2023 July 16–21, 2023. ASME, Atlanta, GA.10.1115/PVP2023-105725 ↗
43. Novak, S.R. and Rolfe, S.T. (1969). Modified WOL specimen for KISCC environmental testing. J. Mater. 4: 701–728.
44. Oriani, R.A. and Josephic, P.H. (1972). Testing of the decohesion theory of hydrogen-induced crack propagation. Scr. Metall. 6: 681–688, https://doi.org/10.1016/0036-9748(72)90126-3.10.1016/0036-9748(72)90126-3 ↗
45. Rawls, G.B. and Adams, T. (2012). Hydrogen production and containment. In: Gangloff, R.P., and Somerday, B.P. (Eds.). Gaseous hydrogen embrittlement of materials in energy technologies. Vol. 1: the problem, its characterization and effects on particular alloy classes. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, UK, pp. 3–50.10.1533/9780857093899.1.3 ↗
46. Robertson, I.M., Sofronis, P., Nagao, A., Martin, M.L., Wang, S., Gross, D.W., and Nygren, K.E. (2015). Hydrogen embrittlement understood. 2014 Edward DeMille Campbell memorial lecture. ASM Int. Metall. Mater. Trans. 46A: 2323–2341.10.1007/s11661-015-2836-1 ↗
47. Ronevich, J.A. and San Marchi, C.W. (2021). Materials compatibility concerns for hydrogen blended into natural gas. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2021 pressure vessels & piping conference PVP 2021, July 13–15, 2021, virtual, online. ASME.10.2172/1884064 ↗
48. San Marchi, C.W., and Somerday, B.P. (2012). Technical reference for hydrogen compatibility of materials. Sandia Report, SAND2012-7321, Sandia National Laboratories. Oak Ridge, TN: DOE.10.2172/1055634 ↗
49. San Marchi, C.W., Somerday, B.P., Nibur, K.A., Stalheim, D.G., Boggess, T., and Jansto, S. (2010). Fracture and fatigue of commercial grade API pipeline steels in gaseous hydrogen. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2010 pressure vessels & piping division/K-PVP conference PVP2010 July 18–22, 2010. Bellevue, Washington, USA.10.1115/PVP2010-25825 ↗
50. San Marchi, C.W., Somerday, B.P., Nibur, K.A., Stalheim, D.G., Boggess, T., and Jansto, S. (2011). Fracture resistance and fatigue crack growth of X80 pipeline steel in gaseous hydrogen. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2011 Pressure Vessels & Piping Division Conference PVP2011, July 17–21, 2011. ASME, Baltimore, MD, USA.10.1115/PVP2011-57684 ↗
51. Shyam, A. and Lara-Curzio, E. (2006). The double-torsion testing technique for determination of fracture toughness and slow crack growth behavior of materials: a review. J. Mater. Sci. 41: 4093–4104, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-005-5553-0.10.1007/s10853-005-5553-0 ↗
52. Somerday, B.P., Nibur, K.A., Balch, D.K., and San Marchi, C. (2007). Hydrogen-assisted fracture of a Cr–Mo steel for high-pressure gas containment. Sandia Report, SAND2007-0451C, Sandia National Laboratories. Oak Ridge, TN: DOE.
53. Sridhar, N, Thodla, R, Gui, F, Cao, L, and Anderko, A (2017). Corrosion-resistant alloy testing and selection for oil and gas production. Corros. Eng. Sci. Technol. 53: 75–89.10.1080/1478422X.2017.1384609 ↗
54. Stalheim, D., Boggess, T., San Marchi, C., Jansto, S., Somerday, B., Muralidharan, G., and Sofronis, P. (2010). Microstructure and mechanical property performance of commercial grade API pipeline steels in high pressure gaseous hydrogen. In: Proceedings of the 8th international pipeline conference IPC2010 September 27-October 1, 2010. ASME, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.10.1115/IPC2010-31301 ↗
55. Steiner, M., Marewski, U., and Silcher, H. (2023). DVWG Project SyWeSt H2: “investigation of steel materials for gas pipelines and plants for assessment of their suitability with hydrogen”. Final Report. DVWG, Bonn, Germany.
56. Stetson, N.T., McWhorter, S., and Ahn, C.C. (2015). Introduction to hydrogen storage. In: Gupta, R.B., Basile, A., and Nejat Veziroglu, T. (Eds.). Compendium of hydrogen energy. Vol. 2: hydrogen storage, distribution and infrastructure. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, UK, pp. 3–26.10.1016/B978-1-78242-362-1.00001-8 ↗
57. Tazedakis, A.S., Voudouris, N., Dourdounis, E., Mannucci, G., Di Vito, L.F., and Fonzo, A. (2021). Qualification of high-strength linepipes for hydrogen transportation based on ASME B31.12 code. Pipeline Technol. J. 1: 42–50.
58. Thodla, R., Gui, F., and Holtam, C. (2020). Environmentally assisted cracking of subsea pipelines in oil & gas production environments: effect of static loading. Corrosion 76: 312–323, https://doi.org/10.5006/2896.10.5006/2896 ↗
59. Topolski, K., Reznicek, E.P., Cakir Erdener, B., San Marchi, C.W., Ronevich, J.A., Fring, L., Simmons, K., Guerra Fernandez, O.J., Hodge, B.M., et al.. (2022). Hydrogen blending into natural gas pipeline infrastructure: review of the state of technology. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, NREL/TP-5400-81704. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy23osti/81704.pdf.10.2172/1893355 ↗
60. Turnbull, A. (2012). Hydrogen diffusion and trapping in metals. In: Gangloff, R.P., and Somerday, B.P. (Eds.). Gaseous hydrogen embrittlement of materials in energy technologies. Vol. 2: mechanisms, modelling and future developments. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, UK, pp. 89–128.10.1533/9780857095374.1.89 ↗
61. Turnbull, A. (2015). Perspectives on hydrogen uptake, diffusion and trapping. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 40: 16961–16970, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.06.147.10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.06.147 ↗
62. Xu, K. (2012). Hydrogen embrittlement of carbon steels and their welds. In: Gangloff, R.P., and Somerday, B.P. (Eds.). Gaseous hydrogen embrittlement of materials in energy technologies. Vol. 1: The problem, its characterization and effects on particular alloy classes. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, UK, pp. 526–561.10.1533/9780857093899.3.526 ↗
63. Yamabe, J., Awane, T., and Matsuoka, S. (2015a). Investigation of hydrogen transport behavior of various low-alloy steels with high-pressure hydrogen gas. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 40: 11075–11086, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.07.006.10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.07.006 ↗
64. Yamabe, J., Awane, T., and Matsuoka, S. (2015b). Elucidating the hydrogen-entry-obstruction mechanism of a newly developed aluminum-based coating in high-pressure gaseous hydrogen. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 40: 10329–10339, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.06.023.10.1016/j.ijhydene.2015.06.023 ↗
65. Yen, S.K. (1999). A retarding mechanism of thermally grown oxide films on hydrogen embrittlement of AISI 430 stainless steel. Mater. Chem. Phys. 59: 210–219, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0254-0584(99)00043-7.10.1016/S0254-0584(99)00043-7 ↗
66. Yoshino, Y. and Minozaki, Y. (1986). Sulfide stress cracking resistance of low-alloy nickel steels. Corrosion 42: 222–233, https://doi.org/10.5006/1.3586000.10.5006/1.3586000 ↗
67. Yu, H., Díaz, A., Lu, X., Sun, B., Ding, Y., Koyama, M., He, J., Zhou, X., Oudriss, A., Feaugas, X., et al.. (2024). Hydrogen embrittlement as a conspicuous material challenge: comprehensive review and future directions. Chem. Rev. 124: 6271–6392, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00624.10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00624 ↗
68. Zhu, X.K. and Joyce, J.A. (2012). Review of fracture toughness (G, K, J, CTOD, CTOA) testing and standardization. Eng. Fract. Mech. 85: 1–46, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2012.02.001.10.1016/j.engfracmech.2012.02.001 ↗