Recent Progress on Non‑Biomass Carbon‑Based Anodes for Sodium‑Ion Batteries

ABSTRACT This review identify itself by concerning exclusively on synthetic non‑biomass carbon anodes. Providing a holistic investigation that connected fundamental sodium (Na) storage mechanisms to scalable synthesis strategies for performance optimization. The most promising anode material in Na‐ion batteries (SIBs) is hard carbon (HC), which is cost‐effective. Its wide‐scale application is however, limited due to difficulty in the comprehension and optimization. Particularly, initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) and long run durability. This review developing a comprehensive model that connects the atomic structure and surface chemistry to the electrochemical behavior of HC anodes. The discussion starts with the reconsideration of the basic imperfection of Na ⁺ storage by adsorption, interlayer intercalation, nanopore filling assisted. Then, further study considers the development of carbons derived as non‐biomass. These are graphene‐based composites and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), the dynamics of capacity and reversibility being controlled by doping, pore engineering, and surface functionalization. Specific focus is put on defect management, solid‐electrolyte interphase (SEI) stabilization and structural hierarchy role in plateau contribution and ICE improvement. New synthesis methods are discussed as scalable ways of assembling high‐performance, mechanically stable carbon structures. Lastly, the review summarizes the future research direction bridging material design with full cell performance requirements.